PE 1109 
.B883 
1854 
Copy 1 



IS INTRODUCED INTO THE TUliLIC Gl 

FIRST SCHOOL DISTRICT OF PENNSYLVANIA. 



OOLS OF TDK 



THE SECOND BOOK 



RATIONAL SYSTEM 

OF 

ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



ABIE ONE TO PARSE THE WORDS OF AN ENGLISH 
SENTENCE WITH SOUND JUDGMENT, AND TO 
USE THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE WITH 
GRAMMATICAL PROPRIETY. 



BY JAMES BROWN, 

THE AUTHOR OF "THE AXPHASCOPE, , ' "THE FIRST ROUND IN THE LADDER OF EDUCA- 
TION," " THE HAND-NOMASCOPE," " THE SECOND ROUND IN THE LADDER OP 
EDUCATION," "BROWN'S FIRST BOOK," "BROWN'S THIRD BOOK," "A 
CLAS8 BOOK OF CRITICISMS," " BROWN'S EX *ISIS OF CONSTRUC- 
TIONS BAD) TO BE DIFFICULT." 



PHILADELPHIA: 
PUBLISHED, AND SOLD BY JAMES BROWN, 

NO. 15 SOUTH TENTH STREET, ABOVE CHESTNUT. 

18 5 4. 



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I LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. | 

| [SMITHSONIAN DEPOSIT.] 

i UNITED STATES OF AMERICA J 



THIS BOOK IS INTRODUCED INTO THE PUBLIC GRAMMAR SCHOOLS OP THE 
FIRST SCHOOL DISTRICT OP PENNSYLVANIA. 



THE SECOND BOOK 



RATIONAL SYSTEM 

OP 

ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



TO ENABLE ONE TO PARSE THE WORDS OF AN ENGLISH 

SENTENCE WITH SOUND JUDGMENT, AND TO 

USE THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE WITH 

GRAMMATICAL PROPRIETY. 



it 






BY JAMES BROWN, 

riTE AUTHOR OP "THE ALPHASCOPE," "THE FIRST ROUND IN THE LADDER OF EDUCA- 
TION," "THE HAND-NOMASCOPE," "THE SECOND ROUND IN THE LADDER OF 
EDUCATION," "BROWN'S FIRST BOOK," " BROWN'S THIRD BOOK," "A 
CLASS BOOK OF- CRITICISMS," " BROWN'S EXEGESIS OF CONSTRUC- 
TIONS SAID TO BE DIFFICULT." 



PHILADELPHIA: 
PUBLISHED, AND SOLD BY JAMES BROWN, 

NO. 15 SOUTH TENTH STREET, ABOYE CHESTNUT. 

18 5 4. 



*t\-^ 



NOTICE. ' •? 

Several years ago, I constructed a new system of English Grammar, 
which is published in three Books, under the title of an English Syntithology . 
Many who stand high both as teachers, and scholars, admit the excellence of 
the work by using it in their schools. While these approve of the system as 
it is, others do not feel warranted in using the new technicals in which the 
principles of the system, are expressed. These wareful gentlemen seem to 
concede the legitimacy, appropriateness, and even advantages, of the new words 
employed in the work. But they say that the use of these new technicals, 
would keep their pupils ignorant of the usual medium through which men speak 
upon the subject of grammar. 

The work in which I have attempted to form a consistent English Grammar 
with the retention of the old names, is also, in three Books. This little vol- 
ume is the second. In this part, I employ the common terms. And lest this 
work should fall into the hands of a grammarian who has read my Class 
Book of Criticism, and he be surprised to find that I here use the very 
technicals which I there condemn, I will here say that my present opinion of 
these technicals is identical with that given of them in the Class Book or 
Criticism. 

After a careful examination of the old theory, I felt sure that teachers 
would be glad to substitute the true system for it. But on proposing this 
if stem for adoption, I found them as loath to leave their prison house cf error 
as was the old inmate of the Bastile, his cell of darkness. Hence, although 
the old structure is utterly demolished, and its fragments strewed from the 
commencement to the end of my Class Book of Criticism, thousands still 
sing peans in honour of Murray ! But, while I regret a want of success in 
my attempt to persuade the world to allow the old theory of English Gram- 
mar to decay, and drop out of the memory of men, I rejoice in the hope that 
I may yet persuade the people to accept of a substitute which, though slightly 
marred by the use of noun, verb, &c, is formed upon the true grammatical 
principles of the English Language. 

While Book II. retains the common nomenclature in general, it rejects the old 
principles, and the old definitions, in full. In a work entitled, " A Class Book 
or Criticism, I have undertaken to demonstrate that the old theory of Eng- 
lish Grammar, is entirely wrong in principle, and utterly incompetent in tech- 
nicals. But, as the world does not yet seem ready to give these old technical 
servants a final discharge, I have retained them in Book II. I have not, 
however, been willing to keep any of the old principles. Indeed, the people 
appear ready now, to reject these with the definitions founded upon them. 

That the old school grammarians will fully comprehend the definitions given 
in Book II., is a point which I will not undertake to decide. The mere ca- 
pacity to call words nouns, pronouns, articles, conjunctions &c, is not ability to 
understand a proposition in the form of a definition. Language has two dis- 
tinct, yet relative, characters ; and, unless an individual understands both 
well, he cannot comprehend either aright. In construction, a sentence is a 
mere table, a mere chair ; it is two, or more words so packed, that they form 
a complete bridge over which one mind can cross to another. But, in import, 
a sentence is an engine for transmitting thought ; and, the better one under- 
stands its beautiful mechanism, the more distinctly, easily, and forcibly he can 
transfer this mental fluid to others ; and the more clearly, and readily, cat. he 
see it as they pass it to him. 

That the rational system is better calculated to produce skill in the structure 
of speech, and in the chemistry of thought, than is the old theory of absurdities, 
which it attempts to displace, is the case that a jury of my country, is now 
empanneled to try — and may their verdict do justice to all without harm to any. 

Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1854, by James Brow jl in th« 
Office of the Clerk of the District Court of the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. 



DIRECTIONS. 

1. Commence at page 6. 

2. Answer the questions under page 8. 

3. Study with great care the Definitions of the different Denomi- 
nations of words, which begin under page ninth. 

4. When the pupil shall have acquired these definitions thoroughly, 
put the following questions to him : 

1. "What is a denomination of words ? 

2. How many Denominations of words are there in English ? 

3. What is the noun Denomination ? 

4. What is said under page ninth in relation to the forms of nouns f 

5. What power does the noun, Moses, exert in the first example? 

6. What is nominative power ? 

7. Does rock in the first example, suspend, or exert its nominative 
power ? 

8. Does rock, or Moses exert nominative power in the second ex- 
ample ? 

9. Can you give the example in which the noun, Moses, suspends 
its nominative power ? 

10. Give the example in* which the noun, Moses, exerts its nomi- 
native power. 

11. What verb does Moses aid in forming the seniensic diction of 
the section in which Moses exerts its nominative power ? 

12. What noun is a noun which aids a verb in forming the senien- 
sic diction of the section ? 

13. When a noun renders no aid in forming the sentensic diction 
of the section, what noun is it ? 

14. By the concurrent action of what two words is the sentensic 
diction of the section formed ? 

15. What words produce the sentensic diction in the second ex- 
ample ? 

16. What is said of red in the second note under page ninth ? 

17. What is said of redness in the same note ? 

18. When are those words of the noun Denomination, which may 
be of the branch, or of the trunk order ? 

19. What is the substance of note three under page ninth ? 

20. What is ring in ring dove ? 

21. What is ring in gold ring? 

22. What is the Pronoun Denomination ? 

23. Are pronouns ever employed with nouns ? 

24. Are pronouns ever employed with a clause ? i 

25. Are pronouns ever employed for nouns? 

26. Are pronouns ever employed for a clause f 

27. Are pronouns ever employed for verbs f 

28. Are pronouns ever employed for pronouns f 

29. Are pronouns ever used for adjectives? 



4 DIRECTIONS. 

5. The teacher should now put the questions to the class, which a 
familiar acquaintance with page 10, will enable him to form. 

6. As soon as the teacher shall have exhausted page 10, he should 
proceed in the same way with page 11, and so on. 

7. Under page 89, is commenced a series of important facts to 
which the pupil should give undivided attention. 

8. The teacher himself should understand these facts and ask nu- 
merous questions in relation to them. There is a system of parsing 
forms connected with this work, which it may be well to explain 
here. 

9. Each/orm page is commenced with the designation of the par- 
ticular Denomination of words in whose Parsing, the page itself is 
designed to aid the pupil. The page which begins with the follow- 
ing head, 

1. OF THE NOUN, 
is intended to aid in giving the Parsing of all nouns. 

10. Under page 111, I attempt to give a partial explanation of 
these form pages ; and, as these pages are highly important, this page 
should be read with care. And that both teacher, and pupil may 
learn something of the exact instrumental relation which these form 
pages bear to the process of the Parsing of the words of a section, 
it may be well enough to re-state here, that each form page is appro- 
priated to the Parsing of the particular Denomination of words, 
mentioned at the head of the page. 

The letters which are placed before the technical terms on the form 

pages, are put over the words in a few prepared Exercises to which 

these technicals are applied in the process of Parsing. For example, 

Mosesj and rock in the following section : 

Moses smote the rock. 
In Parsing Moses, the pupil is to speak each technical before 
which is found on the form page. And in Parsing rock, he is to 
speak each technical before which is found. 

[n i s u p m.] [o c s u p ne.] 

Moses smote the rock. 

Moses, a (n) nomitlve trunk word, of the noun Denomination, 

aiding the verb smote, to form the sentensic diction of the section, 

(i) individual application, (s) subjective indication, (u) uni numer- 

diction, (p) plussed by es, (m) and masculine genediction. 

Rock, an (o) objective trunk word, of the noun Denomination, 
(c) class application, (s) subjective } (u) uni numerdiction, (p) plussed 
by s, and (ne) neo genediction. 



DIRECTIONS. 5 

12. The form page designed to aid in parsing the words of the 
verb Denomination, may be clearly understood from the position of 
the verb in the section. These positions are inceptive, final, medial, 
and solo. 

13. The inceptive verb is the first verb in the verb, series ; as, can 
be punished, have punished. 

14. The final verb is the last verb in the verb series ; as, can be 
punished, have punished. 

15. The medial verb is a verb which comes somewhere between 
the inceptive, and the final verb; as, can be punished, have been 
written. 

16. The solo verb is a verb which is used without another verb, 
one which is employed alone ; as, I have a book, Henry wrote the 
letter. {Solo, alone.) 

17. If, then, the pupil finds that the verb whose parsing he 
wishes to give, is an inceptive verb, he will find the indicative letter 
which is over it, under the head of Inceptive Position on the 
form page. .w e ad .tt U E & 

18. Prepared Exercises : " Ye shall know them by their fruits." 
Now, if the pupil wishes to parse shall, he should follow the 

Italic e which he will find on the verb page, under the head of In- 
ceptive Position. 

But, if he desires to parse know, he should follow the Italic 
ad which he will find on the verb page, under the head of Final 
Position. 

Should it be said that this aid prevents the pupil from exercising 
his judgment, it may be replied that this aid is the very means which 
enables him to exercise his judgment. By the aid of the Indication 
letters, the pupil can proceed without the help of a teacher. The 
pupil who finds it necessary to examine the technical ideas which 
constitute the philosophy of his process of Indication, may suspend 
his Indication for an examination of the Grammar itself; and, 
having read what is there said- on jfchese ideas, he may resume his 
process of Indication through the aid of this scheme, without any 
help from a living teacher. 

19. The pupil should prepare various Exercises in a Parsing 
Book according to the plan given under page 111. 

20. In preparing these Exercises, he will find it necessary to 
consult the Index noun page, the Index pronoun pages, the Index 
verb pages, the Index adjective page, the Index sub-adjective page, 
the Index adverb page, &c. 

21. The pupil should first prepare the same chapter whose words 
are lettered in this book. This chapter he will find repeated after 
the prepared one, with the implied words all expressed, and with 
every two lines printed so far apart that there is room enough for the 
Indication letters over each word. 



GENERAL VIEW OF THE SUBJECT. 

A LANGUAGE. 

A Language is a set of names, words, or signs, from which 
sentences are constructed. 

The English Language is the medium of communicating 
thoughts, generally used in England, North America, &c, and 
has its foundation in the Anglo-Saxon. 

PHILOLOGY. 

Philology is the science of language, and the art of 
using it with propriety in all respects. 
Philology is divided into two parts, viz. : 

1. Signification, and 

2. G-rammar. 

I. Signification. 

Signification is the science of giving words a significa- 
tion, and the art of using them with significant propriety. 
[See Class Book of Criticism, p. 133.] 

[Signification is learned from a Dictionary.] 

II. Grammar. , 

Grammar is the constructive science of a language, and 
the art of using it with grammatical propriety. 

II. English Philology. 

English Philology is the science of the English language, 
and the art of using it with propriety in all respects. 
English Philology is divided into two parts, viz : 

1. English Signification, and 

2. English Gframmar. 

I. English Signification. 

English Signification is the science of the signification 
of English words, and the art of using them with significant 
propriety. 

II. English Grammar. 

English Grammar is the constructive science of the English 
language, and the art of using it with grammatical propriety. 



It may not be amiss to say a few words on the import of the word 
constructive, in the science of English Grammar. The Hebrews de* 
nominated any variation in a word, the word's constructed, or con- 
structive state. Dabar is Hebrew, and means word. " Dabar" is 
put into a constructed state when changed to debar. This word in 
this constructed state means word of. 

Hence Debar Elohim is just equal to the phrase, God's word, or 
word of God. 

The word constructive, in its full extent of import, as used in 
English Grammar, means not only properly shaping the words and 
properly placing them together, but it means also the trunk, and 
branch relation of the words put together. Constructive means also 
all the properties, and facts which belong to words that are put 
together in a section or a sentence. 



DIVISION OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

English grammar is subdivided into four parts, viz. : 
1. Orthography, 2. Etymology, 
3. Syntax, and 4. Prosody. 

I. English Orthography. 

English Orthography is the grammatical science of ar- 
ticulate sounds, of letters, and syllables, and the art of ex- 
pressing their properties. 

II. English Etymology. 

English Etymology is the grammatical science of senten- 
ces, sections, and words, and the art of expressing their 
grammatical properties.* 
•* Sentences, and sections are treated of in the Author's First Book. 

III. English Syntax. 

English Syntax is the art of using the English language 
"with constructive propriety. 

IY. English Prosody. 

English Prosody is the science of English orthoepy, versi- 
fication, style, and figurative speech, and the art of pronounc- 
ing English words with propriety, of forming them into verse 
with poetical accuracy, and of using them with figurative cor- 
rectness. 



8 english grammar. 

Questions. 

1. What is a Language ? 

2. AVhat Language is the English ? 

3. What is philology? 

4. Into how many parts is philology divided ? 

5. What are these two parts ? 

6. What is signification? 

7. What is grammar ? 

8. From what is signification learned? 

9. What is English philology ? 

10. Is English philology divided ? 

11. Into how many parts is English philology divided ? 

12. What are these parts ? 

13. What is English signification ? 

14. On what three principles do words receive signification ? 
[Words receive their signification on three principles, viz : Etymology 

(derivation) analogy, and use.] 

15. What is English grammar? 

16. Ir.to how many parts is English grammar subdivided ? 

17. What is English orthography ? 

18. What is English etymology ? 

19. What is English syntax ? 
20. 

21. What is English prosody ? 

22. What is the difference between a science, and an art? 

[A science respects the principles; but an art respects the rules 
which are founded on the principles.] 

The science of grammar respects the certain fixed grammar principles 
of a language. But the art of grammar respects a practical application 
of certain rules founded on the sciential grammar principles of a lan- 
guage, in the act of analyzing and using it. 

The science of grammar and the art of grammar bear this relation, 
viz : the rules which constitute the art are founded on the" principles 
which form the science. 

" A principle in science is a rule in art." 

English Grammar, as a science, respects the principles on which the 
English Language is used and analyzed. But English Grammar, as 
an art, respects the analyzing and using of the English Language 
according to the principles which constitute this science. 

The science of numbers is found in Arithmetic ; but the art of num- 
bers is seen in the counting-house. 

" A principle in science is a rule in art** 



DENOMINATIONS OF WORDS. 



A Denomination of words, is a class of words. 

In English, there are ten Denominations of words, namely : 

1. JVoun Denomination. 
• 2. Pronoun Denomination. 

3. Verb Denomination. 

4. Preposition Denomination. 

5. Conjunctioji Denomination. 

6. Adjective Denomination. - j-j 

7. Sub- Adjective Denomination. * *-• '■'-■'■ 

8. Adverb Denomination. 

9. Sub-Adverb Denomination. 
10. Interjection Denomination. 

I. THE NOUN DENOMINATION. 
The Noun denomination is the large class of Trunk names which 
are nominative, and objective in the same form ; as, 

Nominative. Objective 

1. The Rock was smitten by Moses. 

Nominative. Objective. ■ 

- 2. Moses smote the Rock. 

Note I. Nouns have nominative power "which they exert, or suspend "without 
any change of form. 

When a noun aids a verb in forming the sentensic diction of the 
section, it is a nominative noun ; as, the rock was smitten by Moses. 
[Rock.) 

When a noun renders no aid in forming the sentensic diction of 
the section, it is an objective noun ; as, Moses smote the rock. [Rock. 

In the first, rock, and was produce the sentensic diction, the aflirmation, of 
the section, by their concurrent action. 

In the second, Moses, and smote produce the sentensic diction by their con- 
current action. Hence, in the second, the sentensic diction is formed without 
any aid from the "word, rock. Therefore, in the second, rock is an objective noun. 

In the first, rock exerts its nominative, its sentence forming power ; but in 
the second, this noun, rock, without any change of form, suspends the exer- 
tion of this power. 

Red Leather. 

Note II. Red is not a noun ; but redness is. Red , and redness are both names ; and 
both forms of this one word, mean the same color. Red is a mere branch name, whereas red- 
ness is a trunk name : as, red leather. The redness of the leather. 

Note III. Tbe words which can be used either as trunk names, or branch names, are of the 
ncun denomination, only where they are of the trunk order ; as, ring, ring dove. 



In the first, ring is of the noun denomination ; in the second, 

1* 9 



ring is a mere branch nams 



10 ETYMOLOGY. 

II. OF THE PRONOUN DENOMINATION. 

The pronoun denomination is a small class of relative trunk words 
which relate to, and are used either with, or for nouns, pronouns, 
verbs, adjectives, phrases, clauses, and sentences to procure what the 
language could not procure without this class of words. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

I. WITH A NOUN TO PROCURE THE SELFSUBJECT INDICATION : 

1. Paul beseeches you, Corinthians, (you.) 

II. FOR A NOUN TO PROCURE THE SELFSUBJECT INDICATION : 

1. Master, I have brought unto thee, my son. (thee.') 

in. WITH A NOUN TO PROCURE THE FORMATIVE INDICATION : 

1. I, Paul, beseech you, Corinthians. (/.) 

IV. FOR A NOUN TO PROCURE THE FORMATIVE INDICATION *. 

1. I beseech the Corinthians. (/.) 

2. "As long as / am in the world, I am the light of the 
world. (I.) 

3. We have called for our books, (we.) 

Note. — In the first I, is used for the noun Paul; in the second, / is used 
for the noun, Christ ; in the third, we is employed for our names. 

V. FOR A NOUN TO PROCURE A CONTINUATION : 

1. John came to a stream, over which he crossed-, and went on in 
great haste. 

VI. FOR A NOUN TO PROCURE EUPHONY : 

1. It rains. (It for rain — Rain rains.) 

2. It snows. (It for snows — Snow snows.) 

VII. WITH A NOUN TO PROCURE BREVITY. 

1. Richard is himself again, (himself.) 

2. John saw the captain himself, (himself) 

3. The captain, himself, gave us permission, (himself.) 
Note. — Himself, as here used, is not employed to give emphasis. 

VIII. FOR A NOUN TO PROCURE PRECISION : 

1. John lost his knives; and he found them. 

2. Daniel caught the bird which flew by him. 

3. This is the house that Jack built. 

4. " Stephen got ■ such fruit as John likes/' 

IX. FOR A PRONOUN TO PROCURE PRECISION : 

1. He whom John saw, is Thomas. 

2. She that wrote this book, is a gifted lady. 

3. I who am now with my brother, was once alone. 

X. FOR A VERB TO PROCURE BREVITY : 

1. John intended to call his brother, which he did not do. (which.) 

2. John laughed which every man in the room heard, (which.) 

3. John went; and James knows it. (it.) 



ETYMOLOGY. 11 

XI. FOR AN ADJECTIVE TO PROCURE BREVITY : 

1. These men say the house is new which others deny, (which.") 

2. Stephen declares the tree is green which is not true, (which.) 

3. The jury pronounced the child guilty which cannot he. (which.) 

XII. FOR A PHRASE TO PROCURE BREVITY : 

1. Who, then, can he saved? (who.) (Who for what person.) 

XIII. FOR A CLAUSE TO PROCURE BREVITY : 

1. John sold Stephen an ox, which David did not sanction. 
(which.) 

XIV. WITH A CLAUSE TO PROCURE ATTENTION : 

1. Now we know that thou hast a devil- (that.) 

2. John said that Samuel is coming, (that.) 

3. That John will soon be here can not be disputed, (that.) 

XV. WITH A CLAUSE, A HALF SECTION, TO PROCURE EASE : 

1. ^ is pleasant to see the sun. (It.) 

2. It is presumed that Mr. Clay will be here. (It, that.) 

XVI. FOR A SENTENCE TO PROCURE BREVITY : 

1. The wind blows severely, boys. We know it. (it.) 

2. The jury pronounced the woman guilty. But it was not right, (it.) 

III. THE VERB DENOMINATION. 

The verb denomination is a large class of branch words of the first 
rank, that have sentensic, and tense power which they exert, or sus- 
pend as occasion requires ; as, 

1. I shall go. 2. I did write. 3. Thou wentest. 

,Notel. Shall exerts both powers — but go suspends both. Did exerts both powers— but 
write suspends both. Wentest exerts its sentensic power in aiding thou to form the sentensic 
diction of the section, and its tense power in marking passed time. 

Note 2. In the following, go and write exert the sentensic, and the tense power which these 
two verbs suspend in the preceding instances — 

I go. I write. 

IV. THE PREPOSITION DENOMINATION. 

The Preposition denomination is a small class of insentensic branch 
words of the first rank, which make sense with the objective nouns ; 
the objective pronouns, and the objective trunk word combinations of 
insentensic sections ) as, John is (in the house) [in which) we heard 
(of him.) He went (for to see his mother.) [in. of. for."] 

V. THE CONJUNCTION DENOMINATION. 

The Conjunction denomination is a small class of insentensic branch 
words of the first rank, which always give sentensic sections with which 
they make sense; as, Joseph went (because John called him.) [because.'] 
VI. THE ADJECTIVE DENOMINATION. 

The Adjective denomination is a large class of insentensic branch 
words of the first rank, which make sense sometimes with nominative, 
and sometimes with objective nouns ; as, what man came ? What 
man shall I call ? Which person came ? Of which person did he speak ? 



12 ETYMOLOGY. 

VII. THE SUB-ADJECTIVE DENOMINATION. 

The sub-adjective denomination is a small class of insentensic branch 
words of the second, third, fourth, or fifth rank, which make sense 

2 3 2 

with adjectives, and sub-adjectives ; as, too cold weather, much too 

4 3 2 4 3 2 

cold weather^ very much too cold weather, This boy's mother's father's 
son is here. 2 2 

1. It is so cold that I must have a fire. 2. There is a milk white 
bird. 3. A blood red leaf. {Very much, too, this boy's mother's, dec. 

VIII. THE ADVERB DENOMINATION. 

The adverb denomination is a large class of insentensic branch 
words of the second rank, which always make sense with verbs ; as, 
John is here. James is not there, [here, not, there.~] 

IX. THE SUB-ADVERB DENOMINATION. 

The sub-adverb denomination is a small class of insentensic branch 
words of the third, fourth, fifth, or sixth rank, which make sense with 

3 
adverbs, or sub-adverbs ; as, Jacob wrote his copy very slowly, and 

3 4 3 

quite exact. How very fast John walks. {Very quite, how.) 

X. THE INTERJECTION DENOMINATION. 

The interjection denomination is a small class of objective scntentional 
trunk words which reject all branch words, and express, individually, 
the meaning of an entire sentence, in the most hurried, and inten- 
sive manner ; as, that my grief was thoroughly weighed, and my 
calamities laid together in the balance, for the arrows of the Al- 
mighty are within me. 

This is the reply of Job to those who charged him with sin, folly, and im- 
patience. Here, is sentential : contains the sentence, I most heartily wish. 

INDICATION OF NOUNS, PRONOUNS, AND TRUNK 
WORD COMBINATIONS. 

The Indications of nouns, pronouns, and trunk word combinations, 
are the expression of certain grammatical distinctions. 

I. Formative Indication. — The formative indication is the 
intimation, derived from an indefective pronoun which the former 
of the sentence, uses for or with his own name, or for an indefec- 
tive pronoun, that the being speaks of himself as the former of 
the sentence ; as, 

1. Master, /have brought my son unto thee. [/.] 

2. /, Paul, beseech you. [/.] 

3. John saw me who am his friend, [me, who.] 
Note. — In the first / is used for the noun, father. 

In the second J is used, not for, but with, the noun, Paul. 

In the third me is used for my name, and who which is a defec- 
tive pronoun, is used for the indefective pronoun, me, from 
which the formative indication is imputed to who. 



ETYMOLOGY. . 13 

Note.— In a few constructions, the auditive functionary is denoted by a pronoun ; as, 0, ye 
of little faith. That is, 0, ye who are of little faith. 

II. Auditive Indication. — The auditive indication is the inti- 
mation made by the auditive comma of a literal noun, or by the audi- 
tive intonation of a vocal one, that the being denoted by the audi- 
tive noun, is constituted the auditor of the sentence by the former 
of it; as, 

1. Master, I have brought my son unto thee. [Master.] 

2. Jlgrippa, believest thou the prophets % [jlgrippa.] 

III. Selfsubject Indication. — The self subject indication is the 
intimation derived from an indcfective pronoun which the former 
of the sentence uses with, or for, some auditive noun, that the 
attention of the auditor, is turned from the sentence to himself ; 
as, 

1. Master, I have brought my son unto thee, [thee.] 
\ 2. Agrippa, believest thou the prophets, [thou.] 

Note.— The old grammars say that thee is a pronoun of the second person, and Master, a noun 
of the second person. But the master is spoken to through the noun to call his attention to the 
sentence ; whereas he is spoken to through the pronoun, to call his attention, not to the sentence, 
hut to himself. How, then, can thee be of the second person? 

When denoted by the use of the noun, the master is directed to give attention to the sentence ; 
but when denoted by the use of the pronoun he is spoken to, to direct his attention to himself. 

Master, I have brought my son unto thee. 

That is, Master, give audience to this sentence, then turn to thyself as the person to whom I 
bring my son. 

Now, as when the master is denoted by thee he turns his attention in upon himself, he not 
only comes out of the auditive function into which he is called by the use of the noun, Master, 
but he bears a subjective relation to his own attention. 

IV. Subjective Indication. — The subjective indication is the 
intimation derived from a noun, an indefective pronoun, or from a 
trunk word combination, that the being, the thing, or the fact, is 
spoken of by the former of the sentence as a subject of thought ; as, 
of thought; as, 'Master, I have brought my son unto thee who hath a 
dumb spirit. Moses smote the rock. The rock was smitten by Moses 

Note. — What! say the old-school grammarians, how can the word, subjective, be applied to the 
objective nouns, and pronouns, when we apply the word subject to nominative nouns, and pro- 
nouns only ? The answer is, that the word, subject, which is another form of subjective, means 
that on which any material, or any mental operation is performed ; and under this definition, 
this word is as applicable to objective nouns as it is to nominative ones. 

In the sentence, Moses smote the rock, the rock is acted on both materially, and mentally. The 
rock is mentioned ; but how can it be mentioned unless there is some thought bestowed upon 
it. Does he who mentions the rock, do it Without bestowing thought upon it ? If not, there 
is a mental action on the rock. Hence the rock is a subject of thought. We are informed in 
the old grammars that Moses is the only subject in this sentence ! ! That Moses is named in the 
sentence to direct attention to him as the smiter of the rock, is not denied, but while this is 
not denied, it is contended that the rock is mentioned in this instance to direct attention to it 
as the thing smitten. Who can'ascertain that more thought is bestowed upon Moses in this 
•sentence than is bestowed on the rodt? Why, then, is not one as much a subject as the other. 
[For a full discussion of this point, see the author's Class Book op Criticism. 

The relation of things which are introduced into a sentence either by direct 
expression, or by obvious implication, must secure the admiration of all. 
Nothing is more simple than this speech relation ; yet nothing is more philo- 
sophic : and, although the the whole lies within the grasp of a mere child, 
grammar makers do not understand it. 



14 ETYMOLOGY. 

In an English Grammar, compiled by Goold Brown, I find the following 
sentence: — 

" The distinction of persons, is founded on the different relations which the 
objects mentioned, bear to the discourse itself." 

"Moses smote the rock with his rod/' 

I should be much pleased to learn what relation Moses, the rock, and the 

rod bear to this sentence. 

That the former of a sentence bears a relation to it, is obvious — and the 

person also to whom the sentence is addressed, bears a relation to it ; as, 

Master j I have brought unto thee my son. 

It is obvious that the Master bore an audience relation to this sentence when 
it was addressed to him. Nor is it at all difficult to see that the father, who 
styles himself I, bore a formative relation to this sentence when he addressed 
it to the Master. But it requires more penetration than falls to the lot of 
most persons, to see what possible relation the son bore to this sentence ! The 
son did not form the sentence — nor is there any intimation in it, that he gave 
audience to it. 

(( Moses smote the roclc with his rod" 

What possible relation do Moses, the rock, and the rod bear to this 
sentence ? 

Moses had been dead years before the sentence was formed. I have just 
constructed the sentence. And is it possible, that Moses who departed this 
life centaries ago, has found his way back from mother dust, and, in some 
mysterious manner, attached himself to this proposition ? 

Whether the rock from which Moses brought the copious stream, has de- 
cayed out of being, I will not pretend to say ; but, even if it is yet in existence, 
it can hardly be supposed to have left its terrene bed for a place in this verbal 
frame-work. 

I will not pretend that the rod employed by Moses in performing this 
standing miracle, was perishable. But, if it has found its way from the 
streaming rock into this sentence which I have just formed, it is obvious that 
the days of miracles are not yet over ! 

The distinction of persons, is not founded upon relation of any kind, but 
upon an ancient dramatic practice among the Greeks, and Romans. Of this 
practice, and the distinction of the three persons in the old Grammars, 
founded upon it, I speak in my Class Book of Criticism. 

The distinction of persons can not be founded upon any relation which the 
things mentioned in a sentence, bear to the sentence itself. 

In the third person, the beings, and things mentioned bear no relation 
whatever to the sentence. Nor do the beings denoted by the pronouns of the 
second person bear any relation to the sentence itself. 

In the third person, the beings and things bear a relation, not to the sentence, 
but to the auditive functionary of the sentence — they become the subject of his 
thoughts ; as, reader, Moses, smote the rock with his rod. 

What possible relation do Moses, the rock and the rod bear to this sentence? 
Moses, the rock and the rod are mentioned in *he sentence, that the reader 
who in this instance, is the auditive functionary, may think upon them as 
they are here mentioned. Hence they all become the subject of his thoughts. 

But the relation which the real beings, and things bear to the sentence, is 
not a grammatical basis. The grammatical basis on which the distinction of 
persons, is founded should be the grammatical expression of the nouns, and 
pronouns themselves. 



ETYMOLOGY. 15 

Grammar concerns not beings, and things, "but words. The question, then, 
is not what relations beings, and things bear to sentences, but what do nouns, 
and pronouns indicate concerning beings, and things. 

In a sentence, there may be mentioned two functionaries, one, or more ex- 
functionaries, and one, or more, sinefunctionaries ; as, 

Master, I have brought unto thee my son who hath a dumb spirit. 

Here are two functionaries, viz. the Master, and I, When the Master is 
denoted by thee, he is an exfunctionary. The Master is the auditive func- 
tionary, and I am the formative functionary. The exfunctionary is the Master 
when ne is denoted by the pronoun, thee ; and the son as denoted by the noun, 
son and by the pronoun, who is one of the smefunctionaries. (sine, without.) 
And the spirit is the other smefunctionary. 

i In some instances the name of neither functionary, is expressed ; as, in the 
beginning was the word ; and the word was with God ; and the word was 
God." 

1. Here the formative functionary is St. John whose name is not mentioned 
in the sentence. 

2. The auditive functionary of this sentence, is the human family ; for, to 
this race of beings, the proposition is addressed by John, the formative func- 
tionary of the sentence. 

It may be~ proper to remark that while no sentence can be formed without 
an expressed, or an implied attendance of the two functionaries, many sentences 
are formed without any expressed, or implied exfunctionary, or siwefunc- 
tionary ; as "I am well. Thou art ill. We have been disposed to return." 

The formative functionary may speak exclusively of himself; as "/am 
well." 

Or he may speak exclusively of the exauditive functionary ; as, John, Thou 
art ill. 

Or he may speak of both functionaries, of the exfunctionary, and of the 
sinefunctionary, in the same sentence; as, " Master, I have_brought unto thee 
my son who hath a dumb spirit." 

In this paragraph there is a beautiful exhibition of both functionaries, of \ 
the exfunctionary, and of the sinefunctionary of a sentence. 

The sentence begins with the auditive functionary who is called to his voca- 
tion under the name of master, by the formative functionary who, to indicate 
in which function he himself acts, calls himself I. * The sentence proceeds, 
and, after allusion to the exfunctionary by the use of the word, thee, intro- 
duces two sinefunctionaries ; one, under the name of son ; and the other, under 
the name of spirit. Master, I have brought unto thee my son who hath a dumb 
spirit." 

Neither the son, nor the spirit is appointed, so to speak, to any function in 
relation to this sentence. That is, the proposition does not constitute either 
the son, or the spirit the former, or the auditor of the sentence. The former 
of the sentence, however, has mentioned both the son, and the spirit in the 
proposition, as sinefunctionaries. 

Doctor, canst thou cure me with thy roots ? 

Let us now see how many of these things have a functional concernment 
with this sentence. We are now to examine the relation which the things hold 
to the sentence. The person, called Doctor, bears an auditive relation to this 
sentence : he is constituted the listener to it, the auditor of it. To give audi- 
ence to this sentence, then, is his function, in reference to this sentence. He 
may have many functions in relation to other things ; but in relation to this 
sentence, it is his function, or employment to give audience. 



16 ETYMOLOGY. 

The person who calls himself me, is the former of this sentence ; to form 
the sentence is his part of the labour, which is to be bestowed on, and about 
this sentence. The forming of the sentence, then, is the function of me. The 
person called Doctor, and he who is called me, hold functional relations to this 
sentence. But thee, and the poor roots, like many politicians, are left without 
an appointment : they are sinefunctionaries: they hold no functional relation 
to this sentence. 

The functional relations which beings can bear to a sentence, are two, viz. 
formative, and auditive. He that forms the sentence, acts in the formative 
function, and is called the formative functionary. 

He that listens to the sentence by virtue of an expressed, or an implied call 
from the former, acts in the auditive function, and is denominated the auditive 
functionary. 

The English Language has not only provided the means of distinguishing 
between these two functionaries, but also of distinguishing the sinefunctionary 
from both functionaries, and the exfunctionary from all. 

1. Some pronouns are indued with the capacity to indicate that the beings 
to which they allude, are formers of the sentence ; as, /, me, we, us. 

2. Some nouns are indued with a power to indicate that the beings to which 
they allude, are the auditors of the sentence ; as, Master, Brother, Doctor, 

3. Other nouns and pronouns are indued with a faculty of indicating that 
the beings, or things to which they allude, are sinefunctionaries of the sentence; 
as, John, Sarah, he, him, she, her. 

- 4. Other pronouns are indued with a capacity to indicate that the beings 
denoted are here out of the auditive function, and are seZ/subjects; as, thou, 
ye, you, thee. 

The means by which nouns, pronouns, and trunk word combinations are enabled to maka 
these four distinctions, is an indicative power in addition to, and independent of, the dictionary 
meaning of the words. The means by which these four distinctions are made among the things 
mentioned in a sentence, are four indicative powers which are not only distinct from one an- 
other, but which are also distinct from the pure dictionary meaning of the nouns, and pro- 
nouns themselves. Each indication has a form, or a word peculiar to itself. 

The word, brother, in the following instance, is of the auditive indication, and has a form 
peculiarly well adapted to this indication : 

" Brother, shall I bring your books ?" 

Here the word, brother, is of the auditive indication ; and, as I have already remarked, has 
a form peculiar to this function. Where is this auditive form of the word brother ?" 

There is much propriety in considering the comma which attends this noun when it is of the 
auditive indication, the auditive form of the word. Do you not observe, John, that whenever 
I apply the word, John, to you, I place a comma by it ? It is this comma, John, which en- 
ables this word to present you as the auditor of the sentences of which I am the former. By 
the omission of this auditive comma, I should present you, not as the auditive functionary, 
but as a sinefunctionary. 

In the following sentence, John, you are presented as a sinefunctionary instead of the audi- 
tive functionary : 

" John came to his brother." 

In the following sentence, however, you are presented as the auditive functionary : 

" John, come to my brother." 

In the first sentence it is affirmed that you came to his brother. In the second, you are 
commanded to come to my brother. Taking the word brother, then, as a letter word, its comma 
may be considered its auditive form. And taking it as a vocal word, its modulation which 
turns you from the sinefunctionary to the auditive functionary, is obviously its auditive form. 

" As the comma is the auditive form in one case, and the modulation the auditive form in 
the other, it follows that, where this noun is without this auditive comma, and without this 
auditive modulation also, it is either of the formative, or of the subjective indication." 

Now, as no noun is ever of the formative, it follows that this noun, when without the com- 
ma, and auditive modulation also, is of.the subjective indication. 

1. Auditive indication : brother, 2. Subjective indication .: brother 



ETYMOLOGY. 



17 



II. Application of Nouns, and Pronouns. 

application. 

In grammar, application respects the appropriation of noun$ 3 
and pronouns. 

To nouns, and pronouns belong, 

1. . Indication, 

2. Application, 

3. Wumerdiction, and 

4. Gfenediction. 

APPLICATION OF NOUNS. 

The application of a noun respects its appropriation to a 
class, or to mere individuals ; as, city, Philadelphia. 
Nouns have two technical applications, namely, 

Class, and Individual. 

1. The class application of a noun is its appropriation to a 
class ; as, man, city, state, town. 

2. The individual application of a noun is its appropriation 
to individuals ; as, Thomas, Baltimore, Pennsylvania, Boston. 





CLASS. 


ILL 


USTRATION. 

INDIVIDUAL. 




CLASS. 


This 


man 


is 


Jones 


the 


painter. 


My 


boy 




James, 


the 


shoemaker. 


The 


river 




Delaware 


a noble 


stream. 


Her 


brother 




John 


the 


grammarian. 


The 


man 


was 


Washington the 


General. 


John's 


writing 


to 


Samuel 


last 


week. 


The 


day 


was 


Saturday 


a 


time. 


The 


month 


of 


June 


has thirty 


days. 


The 


Lord 


said, 


Adam, 




where art thout 1 


A devout 


man 


was 


Cornelius 


who feared 


L God. 


A certain 


woman, 




Mary, 


had seven 


devils. 


This 


plant, 




Charles, 


has great 


virtue. 


The 


height 


of 


Washington was six 


feet. 


The 


increase 


of 


Boston 


in 


population. 


The 


strength - 


of the 


Bosionians 


or of other 


men. 


The 


queen 


°f 


England 


is a mere 


woman. 


This 


man 




Johnson, 


is a 


shoemaker. ■"' 


This 


carpenter 




Mr. Mann, 


is not a 


teacher. 


That 


bird, 




Eliza, 


is a 


robin. 



18 ETYMOLOGY. 



APPLICATION OF PRONOUNS. 

The application of pronouns respects their appropriation to 
rational beings only, or to mere things, and irrational beings, 
or to rational, and to irrational beings, and to mere things ; 
as, I saw the man that read the book which lay on the table 
that was near us. 

[I and us are applied to rational beings only ; that is applied to things, to 
rational, and to irrational beings ; and which is applied to things, and to irra- 
tional beings.] 

The applications of pronouns are divided into, 

1. Rational, 

2. Irrational, and 

3. Ambi. 

The rational application respects the appropriation of pro- 
nouns to rational beings only ; as, Friend, I do thee no wrong ; 
didst thou not agree with me for a penny ? 

' [Pronouns of the rational application — /, toe, me, us, thou, ye, you, who, who- 
soever, whom, whomsoever, myself, ourselves, thyself, yourselves, oneself ] 

The irrational application respects the appropriation of 
pronouns to mere things only, or to mere things and to irra- 
tional beings ; as, John saw the horse which ate the grass which 
grew in that field ; I told Stephen to write the letter, and the 
lad did so. 

[Pronouns of the irrational application — which, and so. 

[Note. — The pronoun, which, is not unfrequently applied to rational beings. 
For instance, in the following : — " For the kingdom of heaven is like unto a 
man that is a householder, which went out early in the morning to hire la- 
bourers into his vineyard." 

" Our Father, which art in heaven." 

This application of which is wrong. 

The ambi application respects the appropriation of pronouns 
both to what is rational, and to what is irrational; as, The 
man that was saved, and the horse that was lost, fell through 
the bridge together. 

[Ambi, both.] 

[Pronouns of the ambi application — he, she, it, him, her, they, them, himself 
herself, itself, themselves, one another, each other, one, ones, others, as, that.~\ 

NUMERDICTION OF NOUNS, AND PRONOUNS 

The numerdiction of nouns, and pronouns, is the expres- 



ETYMOLOGY. 19 

sion of number — unity, and plurality. \Numeros, number, 
and dictio, speech, expression of thoughts.] 
The numerdiction of nouns, and pronouns are> 

1. Uni, and 

2. Plus. 

1. The Uni numerdiction is the expression of unity which 
may belong either to an individual thing, or to a collection, or 
class of things ; as, pen, it, I, booh, father in law, court, jury, 
school, family, committee. 

That these nouns express unity may be seen by placing one before them ; as, 
one pen, one book, one father, one law, one court, one school, one family, one 
committee. 

2. The Plus numerdiction is the expression of plurality in 
the same word ; as, pens, they, we, books, fathers in law, courts, 
juries, schools, families, laws, committees. 

GENEDICTION. 

Genediction is the expression of the gender of animals. 

[Latin, genus, Greek, genos, sex, gender, and dictio, expression.] 

Genediction is divided into Masculin, Feminin, Ambi, and 
Mute. 

1. The masculin genediction is the expression of the male 
gender ; as, man, ox, lad, uncle, nephew. 

2. The feminin genediction is the expression of the female 
gender ; as, ivoman, cow, lass, aunt, niece. 

3. The ambi genediction is the expression of both genders in 
one noun ; as, His parents are dead. 

4. The mute genediction is the silence of the noun respecting 
the gender of the animal ; as, A person went by us in haste. 

NE-0 GENEDICTION. 

5. The ne-o genediction is the want of any expression of gen- 
der, because the thing has no sex; as, booh, pen, table. 

[Note. — In cases of the mute genediction, there is a sex, but it is not ex- 
pressed. , In instances of the ne-o genediction, there is no gender to be ex- 
pressed. 

REMARKS. 

1. Generally, the noun itself marks the gender ; as, heir, heiress, poet, poetess. 

2. An adjective is sometimes used to give utterance to the gender ; as, a he 
goat, a she goat, a cock sparrow, a hen sparrow, a man servant, a maid servant. 

Where the adjective expresses the gender of the animal denoted by the noun, 
the noun itself is of the mute genediction; as, male relations. 
Male is an adjective of the masculin genediction. 
Relations is a noun of the mute genediction. 

3. Sometimes the opponent genders are expressed by different words ; as, 
husband, wife. 

4. In many instances the rational method is adopted — the same word is used 
under two genedictive forms; as, host,hostess, prophet, prophetess, cowra^countess 



20 


ETYMOLOGY. 






Nouns having two 


genedictive forms. 




Maseulin. 


Feminin. 


Maseulin. 


Feminin. 


heir 


heiress 


author 


authoress 


host 


hostess 


tutor 


tutoress 


count 


countess 


traitor 


traitoress 


Jew 


Jewess 


conductor 


conductress 


peer 


peeress 


emperor 


empress 


prince 


princess 


elector 


electress 


shepherd 


shepherdess 


governor 


governess 


baron 


baroness 


protector 


protectress 


deacon 


deaconess 


ambassador 


ambassadress 


poet 


poetess 


director 


directress 


prophet 


prophetess 


votary 


votaress 


tiger 


tigress 


viscount 


viscountess 


hunter 


huntress 


hero 


heroine 


songster 


songstress 


landgrave 


landgravine 


seamster 


seamstress 


widower 


widow 


arbiter 


arbitress 


sultan 


sultana 


enchanter 


enchantress 


czar 


czarina 


tailor 


tailoress 


bridegroom 


bride 


lion 


lioness 


testator 


testatrix 


patron 


patroness 


executor 


executrix 


actor 


actress 


administrator 


administratrix 


lad 


lass 


male 


female 




Nouns having but one genedictive form. 




Maseulin. 


. Feminin. 


Maseulin. 


Feminin. 


boy 


girl 


bullock 


heifer 


son 


daughter 


horse 


mare 


beau 


belle 


cock 


hen 


king 


queen 


drake 


duck 


lord 


lady- 


gander 


goose 


earl 


countess 


husband 


wife 


buck 


doe 


father 


mother 


uncle 


aunt 


brother 


sister 


nephew 


niece 


master 


mistress 


monk 


nun 


sloven 


slut 


hart 


roe 


wizard 


witch 


stag 


hind 


bachelor 


maid 


sire 


dam 


man 


woman 


he 


she 


him 


her 


bull 


cow 







Adjectives made from pronouns, and nouns by applications, and prefixed to 
nouns to express the gender of the beings denoted by the nouns. 



He goat 
He bear 
Cock sparrow 
Man servant 
Male child 
Male relations 
Male descendants 



She goat 
She bear. 
Hen sparrow 
Maid servant 
Female child 
Female relations 
Female descendants 



ETYMOLOGY. 21 

1. Questions. — What is genediction ? 

2. How many genedictions belong to nouns, and pronouns ? 

3. What is the masculin genediction ? 

4. What is the feminin genediction ? 

5. What is the mu-o genediction ? 

6. What is the ambi genediction? 

7. What nouns have the ne-o genediction ? 

8. In what does the mu-o genediction differ from the ne-o genediction? 

9. Do some nouns have different forms for different genders ? 

10. By what affix are these nouns modified to enable them to express the 
female gender? [ess, ine, trix, ina, ss."] 

11. Are there any instances in which the two genders are expressed by 
different nouns ? 

[Give some.] 

12. Is a prefix noun, or a prefix pronoun ever used to express the gender 
of the animal denoted by the main word ? 

13. Are adjectives ever used to express the gender of the creatures deno- 
ted by the nouns which are mute respecting the exact sex ? 

II. THE PRONOUN DENOMINATION. 

The pronoun denomination is a small class of relative trunk words 
relating to, and standing with nouns, and clauses, or relating to, and 
standing for nouns pronouns, verbs, adjectives, clauses, and sentences, to 
secure a certain indication, a euphony, a brevity, a precision, a contin- 
uation, an attention, or an ease, which the language is incompetent to 
secure without this class of words. 

Pronoun Heading. — The trunk word which can be placed on the 
comma, and read with ease, and sense with the other words, is a pronoun. 



1. 


, am here. 


2. 


, art sick. 


3. 


x r ,j am writing. 


4. 


, , art not satisfied. 


5. 


Richard is , again. 


6. 


These books are the ones 



this man wants. 

7. That gentleman wants such books , these. 

8. This boy is the lad , reads so well. 

9. Nathaniel has the book , this boy wants. 

10. , is said , this man is brave 

11. , is pleasant to see the sun. 

12. , this man is brave, is not denied. 

13. Boys, have , yourselves seen Stephen? 

14. , ourselves are perfectly satisfied. 

15. Boys, have you , seen Stephen ? 



22 ETYMOLOGY. 

16. We , are perfectly satisfied. 

17. I , went. 

18. , myself went. 

19. We * , went. 

20. , ourselves went. 

21. Ye , went. 

22. , yourselves went. 

23. And Jesus went up into a high mountain, and when , was 
set down, his disciples came unto , 

24. The men went into a field, and when , were there , 
saw their brother approaching , . 

25. , expects to be saved, , must repent. 

26. The woman , came. 

27. , •, expects to be saved, must repent. 

28. I shall soon be , again. 

29. Nathaniel, I am glad to find , sober; , art now , 

30. John, I , will attend. 

31. They have Christ , for their captain. 

32. The Apostles , were endowed with miraculous powers 

33. , Christ , possessed. 

34. These men saw the father , 

35. These men , saw the father. 

36. The captain , was lost. 

37. On this occasion, the hills , trembled. 

38. , ourselves must soon follow. 

39. , Paul, , beseech , . 

40. [ , ( , am Paul) beseech , .] 

41. Master, , have brought my son unto , 

42. , rains. 

43. , is so cold , John must have a fire. 

44. , said , this man is in error , his friends 
deny. 

45. It rains. John knows , . 

46. James was invited to attend, and , did , . 

47. John sold an ox, , his father did not sanction. 

48. [A certain man planted a vinyard,] (and , a hedge) (about 
, ) (and , (digged a place) (for the wine vat,) (and , 

built a tower,) (and , let , out) (to husbandmen,) (and , 
went into a far country.) 

49. , did John call? 





ETYMOLOGY. 




THE 


"WORDS OF THE PRONOUN DENOMINATION. 


I 


Us 


Yourselves 


One 


We 


Thee 


Himself 


Ones 


Thou 


Him 


Herself 


Others 


Ye 


Her 


Themselves 


Which 


He 


Them 


Oneself 


As 


She 


Whom 


Itself 


That 


They 


Whomsoever 


One-another 


This 


Who 


Myself 


Each-other 


These 


Whoever 


Ourselves 


It 


Those 


Whosoever 


Thyself 


You 


So 


Me 










FORMS OF 


PRONOUNS. 





23 



_The form of a pronoun is its shape, or construction which shows 
whether the word is nominative, or objective; or which does not show 
whether the word is nominative, or objective. 

Hence the forms are nominative, objective, and indefinite. 

1. The nominative is definite, and is the form which shows that 
the pronoun is a nominative trunk word; as, Jam reading. [Z] 

2. The objective is definite, and is the form which shows that the 
'pronoun is an objective trunk word; as, I am reading them, [them.] 

3. The indefinite is the form which does not show whether the pronoun 
is a nominative, or an objective trunk word ; as, I am reading it. [it.] 



THE PRONOUNS OF THE THREE FORMS. 



Nominative form. 
I 

Thou 

He") 

Shej 

Who 

Whoever ~\ 
Whosoever > 
Whoso J 

We 

Ye 

They 



Objective form. 

Me 

Myself 

Thee 

Thyself 
'Him 

Her 

Himself 

Herself 
^Itself 

Whom 

Whomsoever 

(Us 

( Ourselves 
Yourselves 

(Them 

( Themselves 
Each-other 
One-another 



Indefinite form. 

One 

Ones 

Others 

Which 

As 

That 



That 

These 

Those 

So 

You 

It 



24 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Fact T. — The nominative form can not be placed after of) as, of 
Ij of we. (of me, of us.) 

Fact U. — The objective form can not be placed before write; as, 
him writes, (he writes.) 

Fact V. — The indefinite form can be placed before write, and 
after of; as, it writes. Oiit. You write. Of you. 

I. Pronouns of the Formative Indication. 



Uni. 
I 

who 

whoever 
whosoever 
that 

II. 

Uni. 

thou 
who 
whoever 



we 

who 

whoever 

whosoever 

that 



Uni. 



Plus. 



me us 

whom whom 

whomsoever whomsoever 
that that 

myself ourselves 



Pronouns of the Self-subject Indication. 



Plus. 

ye 

who 
whoever 



whomsoever whomsoever 



that 
thou 



Uni. 



he 1 

she V 
it ) 



that 
you 



fc© 

O 
fed 

u< 

a 

H 

3 

fed 



fnt. 

thee 

thyself 

whom 

whomsoever 

that 

which 



PZms. 

you 

yourselves 

whom 

whomsoever 

that 

Which 



III. Pronouns of the Subjective Indication. 



Plus. 



they 



who 


who 


whoever 


whoever 


whosoever 


whosoever 


that 


that 


which 


which 


as 


as 


one 


ones 




others 



O 

O 

►a 
fed 



that 



Uni. 

him"} 
her > 

it ) 

himself") 
herself > 
itself ) 
whom 



Plus. 



them 



themselves 
whom 



whomsoever whomsoever 



that 

which 

as 

one 

one-another 

each-other* 

so 

that 



that 

which 

as 

ones 

others 

others 



*Each, other, and another are adjectives. But each-other and one-another are 
objective pronouns. When eo is a pronoun it is objective; as, I bade him read; 
and he did so. 



ETYMOLOGY. 25 

1. Questions. — Why is who repeated so often? 

2. How many of the indications has who? 

3. How many numerdictions has who ? 

4. Of what indication is thou ? 

5. Is whoever of the formative indication ? 

6. Is whoever of the self-subject indication ? 

7. Is whoever of the subjective indication ? 

i It may be well to remark here, that there are but nine or ten 
words in the language, which can be of the formative indication, 
and that all these are pronouns. These are in the preceding scheme 
which is designed to give a distinct view of the way in which pronouns 
mark the different relations of the things, mentioned in a sentence 
where pronouns are used. 

1. In how many places do you find that } which, as, one, each other, 
and it ? 

2. Is that, uni, and plus ? 

3. Is that of the formative, self-subject, and subjective indication? 

4. What is the plus of he, she, and it? 

5. How many pronouns are both nominative, and objective? 

6. Have you examined the above scheme with great care ? 

Exercises, In which the pupil should be drilled in the indication, 
and numerdiction of the nouns, and pronouns which are in italics. 

1. [/am] (the man) (loho commands them.) 

2. [It is not] (/) (who command the men.) 

3. [TTAo* are] (they) (that opposed the motion) (which James 
made ?) 



He is] (the man) (who makes long speeches.) 
'We are not] (they) ( , whom) (you take us to be.) 
(bi 



./spoke] (to thee;) (but thdu didst not hear me.) 
/went] (to church) (with him,) (and) {them.) 

b. [The men [whom we saw] were all masked.] 

9. [The men (whom you saw) were not masked.] 

10. [The bird (which flew the highest) is] (an eagle.) 

11. [The lions (which we saw) were very large.) 

12. [Lions are (dangerous animals) when] (they are angry.) 

13. [Thou (ioho art bad) shouldst be good.] 

14. [The children (that we taught) have become] (men) (and) 

(women.) 

15. [They (who are not good) cannot appreciate the goodness] 

(which they see) (in others.) 

16. [Isa&b , ] (and Thomas are) (the boys) (whom we saw) (at 

the church) (which is) (in Arch street.) 

17. [Jacob is] (the man) (whom we have selected.) 

* Who is made synonymous with persons, by application "what persons." 

2t 



26 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Although I do not approve of a great number of technical divi- 
sions, yet I verily believe that both the teacher, and pupil may be 
benefited by the technical divisions which are necessary to a clear 
expression of any important peculiarities in the different members of 
the entire denomination. Some of the pronoun denomination, have 
both numer diction j and indication ; as, 1, me, we, us, thou } ye, he } 
she, it, they. 

Others of the pronoun denomination, have neither a numer diction, 
nor an indication; as, who, whom, as, which, that. 

Hence the pronoun denomination is divided into an Indefectivej 
and a Defective class. 

1. An Indefective pronoun is one which has, in itself, a numerdic- 
tion, and an indication; as, I, me, we, us. 

2. A Defective pronoun is one which has in itself, neither a numer- 
diction, an indication, nor a gencdiction ; as, that, as, which. 





INDEFECTIVE PRONOUNS. 


DEFECTIVE PRONOUNS. 


I 


Us 


Yourselves It That 


Who Whom 


We 


Thee 


Himself You So 


Whoever Whomsoever 


Thou 


Him 


Herself One 


Whosoever Which 


Ye 


Her 


Themselves Ones 


As That 


He 


Them 


Oneself Others 




She 


Myself 


Itself These 




They 


Ourselves 


Onc-another Those 




Me 


Thyself 


Each -other This 





Kemarks. — Although that is generally a Defective pronoun, yet when it 
relates to, and is used for, sections, or for a section, it is Indefective ; as that 
John is bad, can not be doubted by those who know him. 

We know that John will return soon. 

Henry understood that the house has been rebuilt. 

In general Defective pronouns are used in compact constructions, 
and are employed in the same sentence with their principals; as, he 
who came, is now here. 

Note. — Here who relates to, and is used for, he which is expressed, and is 
in the same sentence (not section) with who itself. 

In the following however, who, although a defective pronoun, does not 
relate to a principal that is expressed, but to one which is implied'. 

~W7vo came to inform you of it ? 



Here who relates to, and stands for, the phrase, what person, or what per- 
sons, implied. 



ETYMOLOGY. 27 

In the following, whom relates to, and stands for, the phrase, what person, 
or what persons, implied: 

Wlwm did you call ? 

That is, what person, or what persons did you call ? 

Remark. — The Old-School Grammars tell us that whom in this construc- 
tion, is a relative, and that it has its antecedent in a subsequent sentence ! 

Whom did you call ? 
I called the girls. 

Here say the Old-School Grammars, the antecedent of whom, is girls. [It 
is indeed curious that the antecedent should come after the relative ! ! ] 

An Indefective pronoun can begin a sentence, be employed in a 
more lax construction than a defective one can ; it may be expressed, 
or it may be implied, and it relates to, and is used for, a principal 
which may, or which may not be in the same sentence ; as, he came 
to John, and conversed with him. 

Here he relates to, and stands for, a noun in a preceding implied sentence. 
Him relates to, and stands for, the noun, John, which is expressed in the 
same sentence in which him is used. 

But with the exception of who, and its different forms, no defective pronoun 
can relate to a principal which is not in the same sentence with itself. Nor 
can who relate to a principal in a different sentence, except in interrogations. 

While the Indefective pronouns have in themselves, their own 
numerdiction, and indication, the Defective ones are dependent upon 
their respective principals for their numerdiction, indication, and gen- 
ediction. The properties of the defective pronouns, are imputed to the 
pronouns, from their principals. Hence Defective pronouns axe plussed, 
unified, genedictionized, and generally functionized by imputa- 
tion. But Indefective pronouns are generally plussed, and unified 
by the substitution of a new, a different word ; as, for instance, to 
unify we, /is substituted for we, and to plus I, we is substituted for I. 



1. Questions. — What is the pronoun Denomination? 

2. Into how many classes is this Denomination divided ? 

3. What is the Indefective class ? 

4. What is the Defective class ? 

5. Is who of the Defective, or of the Indefective class ? 

6. How are pronouns of the Defective class plussed, functionized and 
genedictionized ? 

7. What does the word, imputation, mean ? 

8. From what are the numerdiction, the' reladiction, and the genediction of 
the defective pronouns, imputed. 

9. How are pronouns of the Indefective class plussed, and unified ? 

10. What is the plus of I? 

11. What is the uni of we ? 



28 ETYMOLOGY. 

I. OF THE NOUN DENOMINATION. 

The noun denomination is a large class of trunk names; as, I saw 
John at church on last evening. 

Note I. The word /, is a trunk word, though not a trunk name. lis not 
my name! 

Red Leather. 

Note II. Red is not a noun ; but redness is. Yet red, and redness are both 
names ; and both forms of this one word, mean the same color. Red is a 
branch name, whereas redness is a trunk name ; as, red leather. The redness 
of the leather. 

Note III. The words which can be used either as trunk names, or branch 
names, are of the noun denomination, only where they are of the trunk 
order ; as ring, ring dove. 

In the first, ring is of the noun denomination; in the second, ring is a mere 
branch name. 

PROVING. 

Proving is the process of deciding to what 'particular denomina- 
tion, a word belongs. 

PROVING RULES. 

Rule I. As a noun is a trunk name ; and, as the branch word, the, 
will make sense with none but trunk names, every name with which 
the will make sense is of the noun denomination ; as, the knife is 
sharp. 

Proved thus. — The knife. Rule I. 

1. In has two letters. 

Proved thus. — The in. Rule I. 

Here in is the name of itself. That is, in is the name of the word, in. 

2. Pronounce the word, book. 

In this place the word is the name of the word, book; but in general, the 
word, word, is the name of any word. 

The word, book, is here the name of itself. 

3. The writing of the letters, gave offence. 

Here, the word, writing, is a trunk word, and the name of the act of form- 
ing the letters ; and, as the makes sense with writing, the learner knows that 
this word, writing, is of the noun denomination. 

Rule II. Where the word, the, changes the meaning of the word, 
or raises a branch word to a trunk one, the word so changed in its 
order, or meaning is not of the noun denomination; as, Henry saw a 
knife, and he wanted it. 

Here, he means Henry ; but the application of the to this word, makes the 
word, he, signify the word itself, as, the he. That is, the word, he, which is 



ETYMOLOGY. 29 

placed before wanted. In this connection, the word, it, means the knife ; but 
the use of the before the word, it, makes this little word signify itself; as the 
it. That is, the word it, which is placed after wanted. 

2. Blade birds will then sing sweetly. 

1. Black, here, means a particular color ; but the adjection of the to this 
word, makes it signify itself; as the black. That is, the word, black, which is 
placed before birds. 

2. Will, here, predicts ; but the application of the to will, makes it signify 
itself; as, the will. That is, the word, will, which is placed after birds to pre- 
dict the event of singing. 

3. Then, here, means time ; yet, if the is applied to then, then, signifies 
not time, but itself ; as, the then. That is, the word, then, which is placed 
after will. 

4. -Sing, here, means the act of making vocal music ; yet the use of the, 
makes this word, sing, mean nothing but itself; as, the sing. That is, the 
word, sing, which is placed after then. 

5. Sweetly, here, means the manner of singing ; but the use of the before 
sweetly, makes it signify itself; as, the sweetly. That is, the word, sweetly^ 
which is placed after sing to indicate how black birds sing. 

3. Jesus said unto Simon Peter. 

1. Simon. The Simon. 

In this section, the word, Simon, is a branch word ; but, when the is applied 
to it out of the section, this branch word is raised to a trunk one. Rule II. 

Rule III. As every combination of words, is either the trunk, or 
the branch name of something , and, as every trunk name is a noun, 
every trunk word section, every trunk word half section, as well as 
every trunk word phrase, is of the noun denomination; as, 

1. He said " they will reverence my son." 

They will reverence my son is a trunk word section, and bears the same 
trunk relation to the branch word, said, which any trunk word would bear to 
this sentensic branch word. 

2. Have you to pap the note immediately? 

To pay the note is a trunk word half section, and bears a trunk relation to 
have. 

3. Thou shalt love the Lord is a part of the first commandment? 

*' Thou shalt love the Lord" is a trunk word section, and bears a trunk rela- 
tion to the sentensic branch word, is. 

4. To see the sun is pleasant. 

To see the sun is a trunk word half section, and bears a trunk relation to 
the branch words, is, and pleasant. 

5. Henry desired to see the sun. 

To see the sun is a trunk word half section, and bears the trunk relation to 
the branch word desired. 



30 



ETYMOLOGY. 



6. John had his arm shot off. 

His arm shot off is a trunk word phrase, and bears a trunk relation to the 
branch word, had. John had what ? Why he had his arm shot off. 

A SPECIMEN OP PROVING. 
The knife is sharp. 

1. The. The the. 

The is not a word of the noun denomination, because it is not a trunk name. 
Rule II. 

2. Knife. The knife. 

Knife is a word of the noun denomination, because it is a trunk name. 
Rule I. 

3. Is. The is. 

Is is not a word of the noun denomination, because it is not a trunk name. 
Rule II. 

4. Sharp. The sharp. 

Sharp is not a word of the noun denomination, because it is not a trunk name. 
Rule II. 

Jesus saith (unto Simon Peter,) lovest thou me ? 

1. Jesus. The Jesus. 

Jems is a word of the noun denomination, because it is a trunk name. 
Rule I. 

2. Saith. The saith. 

Saith is not a word of the noun denomination, because it is not a trunk name. 
Rule II. 

3. Unto. The unto. 

Unto is not a word of the noun denomination, because it is not a trunk name. 
Rule II. 

4. Simon. The Simon. 

Simon is not a word of the noun denomination, because it is not a trunk name. 
Rule II. 

Simon is here, a branch word employed to show what Peter is meant, and, 
as the raises it to a trunk word, the case falls under Rule II. 

5. Peter. The Peter. 

Peter is a word of the noun denomination because it is a trunk name. 
Rule I. 

6. Lovest thou me is a trunk word section of the noun denomina- 
tion because it is a trunk name. Rule III. 

Exercises, in which the child should be thoroughly drilled according 
to the preceding specimens. 
1. [The child should be required to prove every word in a section, and 
he should be required to apply the rules to each word before he attempts to 
say whether it is of the noun denomination, or not.] 



ETYMOLOGY. 



31 



EXERCISES IN PROVING UNINCORPORATED WORDS. 

Peter built in of Samuel's 

Shoes made into from Perers's 

Temple where the beyond men's 

Lucy Sally temple Solomon's Murray's 

EXERCISES IN PROVING INCORPORATED WORDS. 

1. Peter made Samuel's shoes. [Two nouns in the section,] 

2. Samuel cut Peter's hand. [Two nouns in the section.] 

3. Lucy knits men's mittens. [Two nouns in the section.] 

4. Sally makes ladies' clothes. [Two nouns in the section.] 

5. Julia studies Murry's Grammar. [Two nouns in the section.] 

6. Harriet read Homer's Iliad. [Two nouns in the section.] 

7. Men built Solomon's temple. [Two nouns in the section.] 

8. John bought some shoe leather. [Tico nouns jn the section.] 

9. [James Boston purchased this leather] (for shoes.) 

10. Nancy made this bread. 

11. Mrs. West made this bread pudding. 

12. (Isaac,) [is it not almost] (pudding time ?) 

13. [This , is] (beautiful marble.) 

14. [That building is] (a marble house.) 

15. [This marble is] (for that man.) 

16. [These men purchased three bushels] (of salt.) 

17. [Is this , ] (salt water ?) 

18. [Give , ( , me) a water cracker,] (Isaac.) 

19. [Have you cloth shoes,] (Nancy ?) 

20. [John Sampson has cloth] (for a coat.) 

21. [What , have you] (in your pocket ?) 

22. Have you a good pocket knife? 

23. [The meeting was held] (in the court house.) 

24. [The court is now] (in session.) 

25. Where are the silver spoons ? 

26. [These spoons are made] (of silver.) 

27. He likes spoon victuals. 

28. Potiphar did persecute Joseph. 

29. Israel worshiped the golden calf. 

30. Moses destroyed the calf. 

31. Eleazar was consecrated. 

32. Jericho did fall. 

33. The Israelites crossed the Jordan. 

34. The Jordan was crossed. 

35. Moses served Jethro. 

36. Jacob's remains were transported. 

37. Moses did send spies. 



32 



ETYMOLOGY. 



88. Joshua stopped the sun. 

39. The moon was stopped too. 

40. Eglon did oppress Israel. 

41. The ark had been taken away. 

42. Jabin did oppress Israel. 

43. The Levites exterminated the Benjamites. 

44. Gideon routed the Midianites. 

45. Ruth must have followed Naomi. 

46. Gideon was chosen to rescue Israel. 

47. Cicero was banished. 

48. Sylla did plunder Athens. 

49. Jacob fled to escape Esau. 

50. Esau sold his birthright to procure pottage. 

51. Socrates was doomed to die. 

52. Rome was to be subdued. 

53. Sodom was to be destroyed. 

54. God intended to destroy Gomorrah. 

55. Who saw Memnon , invent letters. 



Questions. — Teacher. — How many nouns has the sentence which 
is marked 28 ? 

Pupil. — It has two, viz., Potiphar, and Joseph. 
Teacher. — How many nouns has the 29th sentence ? 
Pupil. — It has two, viz., Israel, and calf. 
Teacher. — Why is calf a noun ? 
Pupil. — Because it is a trunh name. 



Remarks. — In the following Exercises the whole parts of the sections, 
which bear the trunk relation to a branch word, are repeated to show that 
when they are taken alone, they are whole sections. For instance, to show 
that, where art thou, is a mere part of the section, He said where art thou, it is 
inclosed in the brackets which inclose He said. But, to show that where art 
thou may be taken as a whole section, it is set out by itself. As a part, 
where art thou, is a mere trunk word of said. But, as a whole section, this 
combination of words, is a mere branch section which makes sense with He 
said. 

The learner should pay great attention to the proving of these exercises. 
After he has proved the trunk word section by Rule III., he should prove all 
the words in it by Rules I., and II. 

The half section which in these Exercises, bears the trunk relation to a 
branch word, is not repeated. The words, however, are hyphened, and 
printed in italics. The words in the trunk word half section, should be proved 
in the same way in which the learner is directed to prove those in the whole 
trunk word section. 



■ 



ETYMOLOGY. 33 

exercises in PROVING, embracing cases which come under E.ULE III. 

1. [He said where art thou ?] 

(" where art thou?") 

2. [He said they will reverence ray son.] 

("they will reverence my son.") 

3. [His disciples asked (of him) who did sin?] 

{"who did sin?") 

4. [Jesus saith (to Simon Peter) lovest thou me?"] 

(" lovest thou me ?") 

5. [And Peter said. Lord, thou knowest all things."'] 

("Lord) (thou knowest all things") 

6. [But now ye seek to-kill-me.] 

7. [" They said Abraham is our father.] 

(Abraham is) (our father.) 

8. [Jesus said if ye were Abraham's children, ye would do the 
works of Abraham.] 

(" If ye were) (Abraham's children,) (ye would do the works) (of 
Abraham") 

9. [It is divine] (to-forgive-our-enemies.) 

10. [I desire (to-retum-now.)] 

11. [( To-retum-now) is my desire.] 

12. [Is (to-give-tribute) (unto Csesar) lawful?] 

13. [/wish (for to-return-immediately .))] 

14. (For , (to-return-immediately)) is (for , ( to-obey -his- or- 
ders.)) 

15. [/wish] (for (to-obey-his-orders.))* 

16. [/desire (to-obey-his-orders.)] f 

17. [Have you read (the- Son-ship-of- Jesus- Christ?)] 

The titles of books, &c, which -comprise two, or more words, are 
nouns; as, "Brown's Remains," " Report of Sunday Schools" 
" Edwards on Redemption" " Sonship of Jesus Christ." 

Division of nouns, pronouns, trunk word sections, trunk word half 
sections, and trunk word phrases into nominative, and objective. 

1. A nominative noun names an object, and aids a verb in forming the $en- 
tensic dictions of the section; as, [John sits] (by the table.) [John.] 

2. An objective noun names an object, but does not render any aid in form- 
ing the sentensic diction of the section ; as, [John sits] (by the table.) [table.] 

3. A nominative pronoun is one which expresses an object, and aids a 
verb to form the sentensic diction of the section; as, / saw her. Me came 
to me. [/, He.] 

4. An objective pronoun is one which expresses an object, but renders na 

* To-obey -Ms-orders is the trunk word half section of for. 
f To-obey -Ms-orders-is one of the trunk words of desire. 

2* 



34 ETYMOLOGY. 

aid in forming the sentensic diction ; as, I am he, I saw her come to them, [he 
her, them.'] « 

[He after am is an objective pronoun in the nominative form.] 

5. A nominative trunk word section, a nominative trunk word half section, 
or a nominative trunk word phrase, is one which is used as a trunk word, and 
aids a verb to form the sentensic diction of the sentence ; as, 

1. Thou shalt love the Lord is a part of the first Commandment. [Thou 
shalt love the Lord.] 

2. To see the sun encourages us. [To see the sun.] 

Note. — Thou shalt love the Lord is a section which is here used as a trunk 
word, and aids the verb, is, to form the affirmative diction of the sentence. 
[To see the sun is a half section, and, as here used, resembles a trunk word — 
this half section aids the verb, encourages, to form the affirmative diction of 
the sentence.] 

6. An objective trunk word section, an objective trunk word half section, or 
an objective trunk word phrase, is one which is used as a trunk word, but 
renders no aid in the production of the sentensic diction of the sentence ; as, 

1. The first Commandment says Thou shalt love the Lord. [Thou shaft 
love the Lord.] 

2. John loves to see the sun. [To see the sun.] 

3. John has his arm shot off. [His arm shot off.] . 

His arm shot off is an objective trunk word phrase, and bears a ttunk rela- 
tion to had. 

Note. — The first Commandment says what ? 

The first Commandment says Thou shalt love the Lord. 

John loves what ? 

John loves to see the sun. 

Remarks. — To distinguish between the nominative, and the objective, the 
OW-School Grammarians divide things into subjects, and objects. But, as every 
thing mentioned in a sentence, is an object, every trunk word which expresses 
a thing, is an objective trunk word. Yet there may be a grammatical differ- 
ence between two trunk words which express two objects, for one of the two 
trunk words, may aid a verb in forming the sentensic diction of the sentence, 
while the other trunk word may not render any aid whatever in the forma- 
tion of this diction ; as, [John sits] (by the table.) 

The noun John as well as table is the trunk name of an object ; for, if, as 
Dr. Webster says, An object is anything about which some faculty is employed, 
every thing mentioned in a sentence is an object, for how can one mention a 
thihg without employing the faculty of the mind about it! But while the 
noun John, aids the verb, sits, in forming the affirmative character of this 
combination of words, the noun table, renders no aid whatever in the produc- 
tion of this affirmation. Hence while John may be properly styled the nom- 
inative noun, table may be called the objective noun. It is pretended however, 
that the table is the object of the relation existing between John, and it. But 
is not John as near to the table as the table is to him ? Why, then, is not 
John, an objective noun? Because "John" aids sits informing the sentensic 
diction of the sentence. — Class Book of Criticism. 



ETYMOLOGY. 35 

EULES. 
Rule. I. The noun, the pronoun, the trunk word section, the 
trunh word half section as well as the trunk word phrase which can 
not he omitted without destroying the sentensic diction of the section, 
is nominative; as, 

1. Moses smote the rock with his rod. [Moses.] 

The omission of the word, Moses, would destroy the affirmation which is 
made by the joint exertion of Moses, and smote. 

2. Thou shalt love the Lord is addressed to man as a command- 
ment. [Thou shalt love the Lord."] 

That this trunk word section is nominative, may Tbe rendered obvious by 
omitting it : 

is addressed to man as a commandment. 

3. To see the sun encourages us. [To see the sun.] 

Here, the trunk word, half section, to see the sun, is nominative, which may 
be rendered clear by omitting it : 

encourages us. 

Rule II. The noun, the pronoun, the trunk word section, the 
trunk word half section as well as the trunk word phrase, which can 
be omitted without destroying the sentensic diction, is objective ; as, 

1. Moses smote the rock with his rod. [Rock, rod.] 

2. The Governor of the world, says Thou shalt love the Lord. 

3. John loves to see the sun. [To see the sun.] 

4. John had his arm shot off. [His arm shot off.] 

The omission of the section, Thou shalt love the Lord, does not destroy the 
affirmation which is made by the concurrent sentensic exertion of the noun, 
Governor, and the verb, says. Hence this trunk word section is objective. 

The part of the section, the Governor says, is as much a sentence without the 
section, Thou shalt love the Lord, as John is a human being after one of his 
arms has been taken off. 

The affirmation, the sentensic diction of the section, is not destroyed by the 
omission of this trunk word section. 

So Moses smote is as sentensic as is Moses smote the rock with his rod — hence 
rock, and rod are objective nouns. 

So too is John loves as sentensic as is John loves to see the sun — hence to see 
the sun is objective. 

John had is a full, hold affirmation — this affirmation is the sentensic 
diction of this combination of words, and this affirmation is not marred 
in any way whatever by the omission of the phrase, his arm shot off—> 
hence his arm shot off is objective. 

SPECIMEN OF PROVING NOUNS, AND PRONOUNS. 

Examples.— [Moses smote the rock] (with his rod.) 
Moses — proved thus, — smote the rock.] 

As the omission of the noun, Moses, destroys the sentensic diction of the 
section, Moses is a nominative noun. Rule I. 
Rock — proved thus, — Moses smote — .] 



36 ETYMOLOGY. 

As the omission of rock does not destroy the sentensic diction of the seetion, 
rock is an objective noun. Rule II. 

Rod — proved thus, — [Moses smote the rock] (with his .) 

As the omission of the noun, rod, does not destroy the sentensic diction, rod, 
is an objective noun. Rule II. 

True, the diction of the section, with his rod, is not sentensic, but the diction 
of the trunk section, is sentensic, and, as the omission of the noun, rod, does 
not destroy this diction, rod is an objective noun. 

Directions. — Prove all the Exercises on pages 34, 35, 36, and 39. But be- 
fore the learner undertakes this task, he should acquire a correct knowledge 
of the form of proving, which is here given. 

1. Questions. — What is the form of proving nouns, and pronouns to be 
nominative ? 

2. What is the exact form of proving nouns, and pronouns to be objective? 
N. B. Trunk word sections, trunk word half sections, and trunk word 

phrases are proved in the same way in which nouns are proved — hence under 
page 36 the omission of where art thou? proves that this trunk word section is 
objective. 

EXERCISES IN PROVING NOUNS, AND PRONOUNS. 

Let the pupil suppty every no-e-ton* as he reads his section. 

1. [The power (of speech) is] (a faculty) ( , , peculiar) 
(to man ; ) (and , was bestowed) (on him) (by his beneficent Cre- 
ator) (for the greatest , ;) (and , , , ) ( , 

, most excellent uses;) (but (alas!) how often. do we pervert 
it) (to the worst , ) (of purposes!) 

2. [The rapid extension (of the Christian religion,) (through the 
principal nations) (of the world,) may be considered] (as a direct 
proof) (of the reality) (of the miracles) (of our Saviour;) (and , 

, , , ) ( , * , , , ) of the miraculous 
power) (with which) (the apostles ( , themselves) were endowed.) 

3. [The most powerful motives call] (on us) (for those efforts) 
(which our common country demands) (of all her children.) 

4. [The eyes (of a fool) are] (in the ends) (of the earth.) 

5. (In the beginning) [was the word ;] (and the word was) (with 
God;) (and the word was) (God.) 

6. [A certain man planted a vineyard,] (and , set a hedge) 
(about it,) (and , digged a place) (for the wine vat,) (and , 

built a tower,) (and , let it out) (to husbandmen,) ( , 
went) (into a far country.) 

7. [Nature has so exquisitely modelled the human features] ( , 
, , ) (that) (they are capable) (of the expression) (of the 

most secret emotions) (of the soul.) 

* A Nb-e-ton is the word which is understood; as, Thou in Go , to school. 



ETYMOLOGY. 37 

I. THE NOUN DENOMINATION. 

The Noun denomination is the large class of Trunk names which are 
nominative, and objective in the same form ; as, 

Nominative. Objective. 

1. The Rock was smitten by Moses. 

Nominative. Objective. 

2. Moses smote the Rock. 

Note I. Nouns have nominative power which they exert, or suspend without 
any change of form. 

When a noun aids a verb in forming the sentensic diction of the section, 
it is a nominative noun; as, the rock was smitten by Moses. [Rock.] 

When a noun renders no aid in forming the sentensic diction of the 
section, it is an objective noun ; as, Moses smote the rock. [Rock.~\ 

In the first, rock, and was produce the sentensic diction, the affirmation, of 
the section, by their concurrent action. 

In the second, Moses, and smote produce the sentensic diction by their con- 
current action. Hence, in the second, the sentensic diction is formed without 
any aid from the word, rock. Therefore, in the second, rock is an objective 
noun. 

In the first, rock exerts its nominative, its sentence forming power; but in 
the second, this noun, rock, without any change of form, suspends the exer- 
tion of this power. [See p. 9.] 

NUMERDICTION OF NOUNS, AND PRONOUNS. 
The numerdiction of nouns, and pronouns, is the expression of 
number — unity, and plurality. [Numeros, number, and dicto, speech, 
expression of thoughts.] 

The numerdiction of nouns, and pronouns, are 
1. Uni, and 2. Plus. 

1. The Uni jmmerdiction is the expression of unity which may 
belong either to an individual thing, or to a collection, or class of 
things; &s, pen, it, I, book, father in law, court, jury, school, family, 
committee. 

That these nouns express unity may be seen by placing one before them ; 
as, one pen, one book, one father, one law, one court, one school, one family, one 
committee. 

2. The Plus numerdiction is the expression of plurality in the same 
word ; as, pens, they, we, books, fathers in law, ccnirts, juries, scJwols, 
families, laws, committees. 

Remarks.— Hitherto, the subject of nouns of multitude, as they are called 
in old Grammars, has not been well understood, and, of course, not clearly pre- 
sented to the mind of the student. That these nouns are not rendered pecu- 
liar from the fact that they denote bodies which are made up of different 
parts, or from the fact that they comprise numerous members, may be ren- 
dered quite obvious to all who have minds, capable of comprehending simple 
principles, and plain truths. It is said that the word, jury, is a collective 



OO ETYMOLOGY. 

noun, a noun of multitude. Is the prototype, the thing denoted by the word, 
jury, composed of many members, or parts ? So is the prototype of the word, 
hand. A jury may comprise six men; a jury may comprise twelve men; a 
jury may comprise ticenty-four men. A hand comprises five nails, four fingers, 
one thumb, many joints, many arteries, many veins, and many bones. If, 
then, the word, jury, is a collective name, a noun of multitude, because its 
prototype comprises many parts, certainly the word, hand, is a collective name, 
a noun of multitude. 

Family is said to be a noun of multitude, while book is excluded from this 
class. Yet there are very few families that comprise as many members as a 
book. It is hardly possible to find a family that is composed of more than 
thirty parts, or members ; yet it is equally hard to find a booh which is made 
up of so few parts, members, or pages. A family is one thing made up of 
parts — a book is one thing made up of parts — a jury is one thing made up of 
parts — a tree is one thing made up of parts — a church is one thing made up 
of parts — a minute is one thing made up of parts. Is the church composed 
of sixty parts, or members, so is the minute. The word, minute, then, is as 
much a noun of multitude, as is the word, church. 

It may be said that as the members of a jury, &c, are distinct individuals, 
it is hardly just to consider them as bearing the same relation to the jury, 
which the fingers, &c, bear to the hand. True, a man is a distinct whole ; 
but he is also a mere part. John is a whole human being — but he is not a 
whole jury — he is a mere part of a jury. Every finger is & whole, abstractly 
considered ; but in reference to the hand, every finger is a mere part. John 
is a part of a jury — a finger is a part of a hand. 

1. Questions. — What is the numerdiction of a noun? 

2. What is the numerdiction of a pronoun ? 

3. Of what numerdiction is man ? [£7m.] 

4. Of what numerdiction is men ? [Plus.] 

5. Of what numerdiction is it ? 

6. Of what numerdiction is we ? 

7. Is we of the noun, or of the pronoun denomination ? 

8. What is the etymology of the word, numerdiction ? 

I. The Plurors of Nouns, and Pronouns. — The plurors of 
nouns, and pronouns, are the diffrent means which render nouns, and 
pronouns plural; as, book, books (s), man, men, (e). 

The Plurors. — S, Es, Yes, Ies, E, En, Ee, Ic, Ice, Im, M } I, 

A, Nepos, Sense, Imputation. 

Eemarks. — S is a pluror where it adds merely its own sound to that of the 
syllable to which it is affixed ; as, attorney attorney*, chimney chimneys. * 

But where s would not only add its own sound to that of the syllable to 
which it may be affixed, but would actually change the syllable into one of an 
entirely different sound, and import, « is not the pluror of the noun ; as, wo, 
la-dy, directory. 

As an affix to nouns, s is numeral in its import, and denotes plurality. 8 
has this numeral import in all instances where it holds in the frame-work 
of the word, a mere affix relation ; as, book, book-s, pen, pen-s. In the same 
way in which semi, and demi are prefixed to nouns to denote half; as, semi- 
vowel, demi-tons ; s is affixed to nouns to denote plurality j as, book, book-* 



ETYMOLOGY. 39 

But as demi, and semi are not prefixes in all instances, as in seminary, 
aemise ; so s is not always a pluror, as in atlas, John Maas. 

1. Semi-vowel, — Seminary. 2. Book-s, — At-las. 

Here as semi modifies the word, vowel, so does s modify the word, booh. While 
semi makes the word, vowel, mean a half vowel, s makes the word, book, mean 
many books. And, while semi loses its prefix character in seminary, by becom- 
ing an essential part of the word, s loses its affix character in atlas, by becom- 
ing an essential part of the syllable to which it belongs — las. 

Hence where it is possible for s to convert the syllable into one different 
from that intended, by appearing to be an essential part of it, s should not be 
used as a pluror ; as, lady, l&-dys, wo, wos, potato, po-ta-ifos. 

Here s is liable to be taken, not as a mere puralizing affix to the word, lady, 
but as an essential part of the last syllable — and as such 5 converts dy into 
dys, dis. Hence the word would become la-dys, or la-dis, instead of ladies. 
And, if we give s its sharp hissing sound, it converts wo into woss. Hence 
instead of having woes we have woss. And, if we give a its short broad 
sound, and s its sharp hissing sound, we have po-ta-itoss, instead of potatoes. 

In instances, however, where y is preceded by a vowel, s retains its pluror 
character ; as, attor-ney, attor-neys. Neys, as a mere syllable, is nearly equal 
to nies. _ 

# retains its pluror character where it merely adds its own sound to that 
of the syllable to which it is affixed ; as, money, moneys, chimney, chimneys. 

But where s not only adds its own sound to that of the syllable to which it 
is affixed, but actually changes the syllable into one entirely different in 
sound, and import, s loses its numeral, its affix character ; as, wo, wos, lady, 
la-dys, directory, directo-rys. 



Rule I. Nouns which end with a, e,y, or w, are plussed by s; as, 
era, eras, pie, pies, landau, landaus, bow, bows. 

Rule II. When a final o is preceded by a vowel, the noun is plussed 
by s ; as Scipio Scipois. 

Rule III. When the final oo is pronounced like oo in too. the noun 
is plussed by s; as, bamboo, bamboos. 

Rule IV. Nouns, in general, which end in any consonant but ch 
soft, x, s, ss, or sh, are plussed by s; as scrap, scraps, chin, chins, mus- 
sulman, mussulmans. 

Rule V. When the final y is preceded by a vowel, the noun is 
plussed by s; as, key, keys, attorney, attorneys. 

Rule YI. When the noun which terminates in/, or/e, or^, does 
not retain much of the / sound in the plural, it is plussed by s ; as, 
fife, fifes, grief, griefs, surf, surfs. (Not fives, grieves, surges.) 

Rule VII. When the noun is followed by the adjective in a con- 
struction which might be made a compound word, the noun is plussed 
by placing s immediately after it ; as court martial, courts martial. 



40 



ETYMOLOGY. 



NOUNS WHICH ARE PLUSSED BY THE S PLUROR. 



1. 

Automation 

Beau 

Cherub 

Encomium 

Medium 

Memorandum 

Seraph 

Mono 

Turkoman 



2. 3. 4. 

Affray Brief Graff 

Allay Dwarf Mischief 

Attorney Fife Proof 

Chimney Grief Reproof 

Delay Gulph Roc»f 

Money Handkerchief Scarf 

Sunday Hoof Strife 

Mussulman Flag-Staff Surf 

Talisman Staff* Turf, Wharf. 

Note I. — The word, beau, is French, and is plussed by z; as, beauz. 
The word is so well known, however, in the English language that it may 
be plussed by 5 without any danger of turning it into another word — indeed 
I do not see that s is liable to lose its pluror character in this place any more 
than in attorney*. 

The other nouns in the first column, are made from foreign languages ; 
and they may be plussed by s, and also by the plurors peculiar to their res- 
pective sources. 

Each of these is denominated a duplus. 

A Duplus is a word which has two plurors ; as, mediums, media, (s, a.) 
A Uniplus is a word which has but one pluror ; as, pen, pens. 
Note 2. — The words in the third column, as well as those in the fourth, 
are exceptions to other classes. 

THE ES PLUROR. 

The es pluror is the plussing means of those nouns which are plussed 
by es ; as, box, boxes gas, gases. 

Rule I. Where a noun ends with soft ch, x, sh, s, or ss, it is 
plussed by es; as, churcA, churches, boa, boxes, gas, gases, calasA, 
hiss, hisses. 

Rule. II. When the final o is preceded by a consonant, the noun 
is plussed by es; as, negro, negroes, motto, mottoes, echo, echoes. 

NOUNS WHICH ARE PLUSSED BY THE ES PLUROR. 

Apollo Index Lass Basis Mess Miss 

Box Axis Lash Branch Negro Crisis 

Church Diaeresis Manifesto Antithesis Rebus Oniphasis 

Echo HypothesisMusketo Memento Volcano Metamorphosis 

Calash Grass Ellipsis 

Note — Index may be considered a duplus — it has two plurors, though not 
without regard to the sense. When the word signifies pointers, or tables of 
contents, it is plussed by es. 

But when it signifies algebraic quantities, it is plussed by ices— Indices. 

* Staff, as a military term, is plussed by s. But when the noun denotes a walk- 
ing-stick, it is plussed by ves. 







ETYMOLOGY. 




Nouns which have no uni \ 


Annals 


Clothes. 


K Feelings 


Archives 


Customs 


Goods 


Ashes 


Calends 


Hatches 


Assets 


Drawers 


Ides \ 


Betters 


Downs 


Lees 1 


Bitters 


Dregs 


Lungs 1 


Bowels 


Embers 


Matins i 


Breeches 


Entrails 


Mallows I 


Compasses 


Fetters 


Orgies ! 



41 



Nippers 

Pincers 

Pleiades 

Riches 

Snuffers 

Shears 

Scissors 

Shambles 

Tidings 



Tongs 

Thanks 

Tweezers 

Vespers 

Vitals 

Victuals 

Letters* 

Manners^ 



THE VES PLUROR. 

The ves pluror is the plussing means of those nouns that are plussed 
by ves; as, elf, elves, life, lives. 

Rule. Where the pluss retains almost all the /sound, the noun is 
plussed by ves; as, beef, beeves, leaf, leaves. 

Very little of the/ sound is retained in the pluss of fife— -fifes. 

NOUNS WHICH ARE PLUSSED BY THE VES PLUROR. 

Beef Elf Knife Life Self Shelf Thief Wife 
Calf Half Leaf Loaf Sheaf Stafff Wharf Wolf 

THE IES PLUROR. 

The ies pluror is the plussing means of those nouns which are 
plussed by ies; as, proxy, proxies. 

Rule. When the final y is preceded by a consonant, the noun is 
plussed by substituting ies for y; as, lac?y, ladies, duty, dukes. 

Remarks. — If s alone, is affixed, lady becomes \&dys ; and duty becomes 
dutys. And, if es should be affixed, lady would become la-dy-es. And, if the 
word should be considered a dissyllable, — thus, ladyes, dutyes, the word, yes, 
would become a mere affix to other words. 

In this way we should have two derivative affixes importing precisely the 
same thing — yes, and ies. 

Besides, yes is not synonymous with ies in sound. Yes is yis, and ies is 
sometimes short ie with s ; as, ies, ees. La-dees, dutees. 

Nor is it in the power of any letter to make yes, ies. Hence, dyes is not 
equal to dies — nor is tyes synonymous with ties. Dies is dees ; and ties is tees. 
But dyes is dy-es ; and tyes is ty-es. 

Nor is it in the power of any letter except a vowel, to make ys equal to es, 
for es, as an affix pluror, is short ee with s ; as ys, ees. Now eys, as an affix, 
is nearly, or quite ees — for the y is short, which gives it the sound of short 
e — hence eys is nearly, or quite ees. Therefore, all nouns terminating a sin- 

* Letters in the sense of literature. 
f Manners in the sense of behaviour. 

% When staff means a walking-stick, it is plussed by ves. Bat as a term in mili- 
tary affairs, staff is plussed by s, 



42 



ETYMOLOGY. 



gular with a y which is preceded by a vowel, have the 5 pluror ; as, day, day*. 
But unless the y is preceded by a vowel, the noun is plussed by ies ; as, 
fly, fh'es. 

Beauty, Fly, i, es. 

Duty, Penny, i, es. 

Penny is a duplus — it may be plussed in two ways — penmes, pence. 

NOUNS WHICH ARE PLUSSED BY THE IES PLUROR. 

Proxy Fly Cry Liberty Piracy Lady 

City Ditty Berry Destiny Prodigy Beauty 

THE E PLUROR. 

The e pluror is tbe plussing means of the nouns that are plussed 
by e; as, man, men, woman, women. 

THE EN, OR REN PLUROR. 

The en, or ren pluror is the plussing means of the nouns which are 
plussed by en, or ren; as, brother, brethren, child, children, ox, oxew. 

Brother is a duplus — it has two plurors, s, and ren. When the 
noun is applied to a person who is a brother by blood, it is generally 
plussed by s. 

But, when it is applied to a member of the same society, it is gen- 
erally plussed by ren. 

THE EE PLUROR. 

The te pluror is the plussing means of the nouns which are plussed 
by ee; as, foot, feet, tooth, teeth, goose, geese. 

THE ICE PLUROR. 

The ice pluror is the plussing means of the nouns which are plussed 
by ice ; as, mouse, mice, louse, lice. 

THE IM PLUROR. 

The im pluror is the plussing means of the nouns derived from the 
Hebrew, and plussed by im; as, cherub, cherubim, seraph, seraphim. 

Cherub, as well as seraph, is a duplus. Both are plussed by im, 
and s. 

THE M PLUROR. 

The se pluror is the plussing means of nouns derived from the Latin, 
and plussed by se ; as, lamina, laminae 

THE I PLUROR. 

The i pluror is the plussing means of nouns derived from the Latin, 
and Greek, which are plussed by i; as, magus, magi, radius, radiV, 
genius, gemY. 

When men of genius are meant, genius has the es pluror ; as the 
Smiths are all geniuses. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



43 



But when aerial spirits are meant, genius \ia,s the i pluror; as, these 
are some good genn sent to protect us. 

Indeed, genius may be considered a duplus. 

THE A PLUROR. 

The a pluror is the plussing means of nouns of foreign extraction, 
which are plussed by a ; as, criterion criteria, arcanum, arcana. 

NOUNS WHICH ARE PLUSSED BY THE A PLUROR. 

Arcanum Arcanum Erratum Automaton Erratum 

Criterion Criterion Stratum Effluvium Desideratum 

Datum Datum , Effluvium Genus Phenomenon 

Those in italics are duplusses — they are plussed by a, and s. 

Note, — Criterion, genus, medium, stratum, and stamen, are duplusses. Genus 
is plussed by es ; the others, by s. (See Note under the i pluror.) 

THE NEPOS PLUROR. 

The nepos pluror is the plussing means by which indefective pro- 
nouns are plussed by new words; as, I, we, — he, they, — it, they, — thou, 
you, or ye. 

ALL INDEFECTIVE PRONOUNS HAVE THE NEPOS PLUROR. 

I Me Thou Thee He Him She Her It 

(The word, nepos, is made from neos, new, and epos, a word, and means new 
word. The nepos pluror, then, is the new word pluror.) 

THE SENSE PLUROR. 

The sense pluror is the plussing means of the nouns which are 
plussed entirely by the sense ; as, sheep, deer. 

NOUNS WHICH ARE PLUSSED BY THE SENSE PLUROR. 



Deer 


Amends 


Odds 


Hiatus 


Haddock 


Means 


Swine 


Wages 


Means 


Apparatus 


Sheep 


JKine 


Eish 


Species 


Alms 


Salmon 


Hose 


Trout 


Shad 


Gallows 


Series 


Cannon 


Cattle 


Herring 





THE IMPUTATION PLUROR. 



The imputation pluror is the plussing means of the pronouns which 
have no pluror in themselves, or of their own, and which are plussed 
by imputing to them the plus numerdiction of the nouns to which 
they relate ; as, Henry who wishes to see you, is here ; the Henries 
who wish to see you, are here. 



44 



ETYMOLOGY. 



ALL DEFECTIVE PRONOUNS ARE PLUSSED BY THE IMPUTATION 

PLUROR. 

As That Which Who 

Whom Whoever Whomsoever Whosoever 

NOUNS WHICH HAVE NO PLUS NUMERDICTION. - 



Sugar 


Souse 


Odium 


Innocence 


Redness 


Pride 


Spaciousness 


Neatness 


Eucharist 


Blackness 


Wheat 


Gold^ 


Weakness 


Wealth 


Despair 


Sloth 


Disdain 


Contempt 


Tidings 


Temperance 


Pitch 


Cotton 


Hatred 


Febleness 


Canvass 


Love 


Flax 


Violence 


Lard 


Tightness 


Silver 


Wool 


Affluence 


Money 


Snugness 


Confinement 


Pity _ _ 


Business 


Honesty 


Sourness 


Heroism 


Humility 


Goodness 


Integrity 


Property 


Firmness 


Hopelessness Accuracy 


Strength 


&c. ; &c. ; &c 


Closeness 


Laziness 









Note. — Wheat, tea, sugar, coffee, money, property, (as wealth,) &c, should 
not be plussed. The different wheats is not good. It should be the different 
kinds of wheat. 

:s in any case, — 
lead them. 
Mathematics 
Mechanics 
Hydraulics 
Hydrostatics 
Analytics 
Politics 



The following nouns 
yet writers use them as 
Amends News 



Alms 

Bellows 

Gallows 

Odds 

Means 

Pains 



Riches 

Wages 

Billiards 

Fives 

Sessions 

Measles 



should not be considered ph 
uni, or plus, as their whims 
Hysterics Acoustics 



Physics 

Ethics 

Optics 

Conies 

Catoptrics 

Dioptrics 



Pneumatics 

Statics 

Statistics 

Spherics 

Tactics 

Economics 



1. QuESTiONS.-What are the grammatical properties of nouns, and pronouns? 

2. What is application ? 

3. "What are the plurors of nouns, and pronouns ? 

4. What is numerdiction ? 

5. What is genediction ? 

6. What is reladiction? 

7. What is the pluror of book 9 (s.) 

8. What is the pluror of me? (us.) 

9. What is the pluror of mouse? (ice.) 

10. What is the pluror of wo? (es.) 

11. What is the pluror of thou? (ye.) 

12. What is the pluror of man? (e.) 

13. What is the pluror of lady? (ies.) 

14. What is the pluror of landau? (s.) 

15. What is the pluror of beau? (s, or x.) 

16. What is the pluror of mussulman ? (s.) 

17. What is a pluror ? 

18 What is the pluror of attorney general? (s.) 



, . ETYMOLOGY. 45 

III. THE VERB DENOMINATION. 

The verb denomination is a large class of branch ^ords of the first 
rank, that have sentensic, and tense power which they exert, or suspend 
as occasion requires ; as, 

1. I shall go. 2. I did write. 3. Thon wentest. 

Note I. Shall exerts both powers — but go suspends both. Did exerts both 
powers — but write suspends both. Wentest exerts its sentensic power in aiding 
the nominative, thou, to form the sentensic diction of the section, and its tense 
power in marking passed time. 

Note II. In the following, go, and write exert the sentensic, and the tense 
power which these two verbs suspend in the preceding instances — 

I go. I write. 

Sentensic power is a capacity to aid a nominative trunk word to create diction, 
speech, a sentence character. 

1. John resembles his mother. Resembles. 

Resembles, a word of the verb denomination, because it is a branch word, 
and has sentensic power which it here exerts in aiding the nominative noun, 
John, to form the sentensic diction of the section. 

2. John has a book. 

Has, a word of the verb denomination, because it is a branch word, and 
has sentensic power which it here exerts in aiding the nominative noun, John, 
to form the sentensic diction of the section. 

3. John is to have a new hook. Is, Have. 

Is, a word of the verb denomination, because it is a branch word, and has 
sentensic power which it here exerts in aiding the nominative noun, John, to 
form the sentensic diction of the section. 

Hkve is a word of the verb denomination, because it is a branch word, and 
has sentensic power which it here suspends. 

DIVISION OF THE VERB DENOMINATION. 

The verb denomination is divided into Inceptive, Final, Medial, and 
Solo verbs. 

1. An Inceptive verb is theirs* word in the verb series, and gen- 
erally exerts sentensic, and tense power; as, John can walk, John will 
walk, John does walk. 

A verb series is a combination of two, or more verbs ; as, can walk, will 
have walked. 

4. John was walking. Was. 
Was, here is an inceptive verb, and exerts its sentensic power in aiding the 

nominative noun, John, to form the sentensic diction, and its tense power in 
marking passed time. 

5. John being called he went away. Being. 

Being is here an inceptive verb, and exerts its sentensic power only. 



46 ETYMOLOGY. 

6. John having written to his mother, she came on. Having. 
Here, having exerts its sentensic power, but suspends its tense power. 

7. John is to be punished. Be. 

Be here suspends its sentensic, but exerts its tense power. 
Note. In the half section no verb exerts its sentensic power. 

II. FINAL VERBS. 

A final verb is the last word of a verb series, and never exerts 
either its sentensic, or its tense power; as, 

1. John will be reading. Reading. 
Here reading suspends both of its verb powers. 

2. Be thou reading thy book, John. Reading. 

Here too, reading is a final verb, and of course suspends both of its verb 
powers. 

3. John has written the note. Written. 

Here written is a final verb, and suspends, of course, both of its verb 
powers. 

4. The General being slain, the army was routed. Slain, Routed. 

Slain, and routed are final verbs, and suspend their sentensic, and tense 
power. 

5. John having written to his mother, she must have received hia 
letter. Written, Received. 

6. John may be at Boston. Be. 

7. I shall have been at school four weeks next Monday. Been. 

III. MEDIAL VERBS. 

A medial verb is a sentensic branch word which comes somewnere 
between the inceptive and the final verb, and suspends its sentensic 
power in all cases; as, 

1. John will be writing. Be. 

Here be is a medial verb, and suspends its sentensic, and its tense power. 

2. John might have been reading. Have, been. 

Here have, exerts its tense power only. Been suspends both of its verb 
powers. 

3. The lad appears to have been treated badly. Been. 

Been, in the half section, is a medial verb, and suspends both of its verb 
powers. 

4. John might have read the book. Have 
Here have exerts its tense power only. 

5. John will have been at Boston six weeks next Tuesday. 
• Have exerts its tense power only. Been is a final verb. 

N. B. Have, be, and been are the only medial verbs in English, which com© 
into the half section. 



ETYMOLOGY. 47 

IV. SOLO VERBS. 
A solo verb is a verb which is used without another verb, and gen- 
erally exerts its sentensic, and tense power ( Solo, alone); as ; 

1. Henry needs bread. Needs, (necessity.) 

2. We trust we have a good conscience. Trust. ( Confidence.) Have. 

3. The provisions lasted six days. Lasted. (Continuation.) 

4. John enjoys good health. Enjoys. (Possession.) 

5. The bridge extends across the stream. ^Extends. (Extent.) 

6. James resembles her. Resembles. (Likeness.) 

• 7. The timber wants strength. Wants. (Destitution.) 

It is a fact that not one of these seven verbs is embraced by the old defini- 
tion of a verb. The definition reads thus : — 

"A verb is a word which signifies being, action, or suffering." 
Now it so happens that not one of these seven solo verbs signifies any one 
of these three things. Needs, signifies necessity — Trust, signifies confidence — 
Lasted, signifies continuation — Enjoys, signifies possession — Extends, signifies 
extension — Resembles signifies likeness — and Want, signifies destitution. 

They who would learn how many verbs are not embraced by the old defini- 
tion of a verb, and how many nouns are embraced by it, should read " The 
Class Book o:f Criticism," by James Brown. 

SUB-DIVISION OP VERBS. 

Verbs are sub-divided into a nominative, and an objective class. 

1. A nominative verb is one which makes sense with the nominative 
noun, or pronoun only ; as, John can walk, Jane has been punished, 
she smiles, I am to return. [Can, walk, has, been, punished, smiles, 
am, return.^ 

N. B. All trunk word combinations are included in the word, noun. 

2. An objective verb is one whose meaning requires an objective 
noun, or pronoun to complete, not the sentensic diction, but the sense; 
or one merely making sense with the objective noun, or pronoun in the 
whole part of the compound section; as, 

Moses smote the rock, John enjoys good health, Nancy resembles 
mother, she has a book, John went to pick apples, they allow me to 
eat fruit, I told them to return. [Smote, enjoys, resembles, has, pick } 
told, allow, eat, return.~\ 

1. Which of these verbs are in the half section ? 

2. With how many objectives does eat make sense? 

3. With how many objectives does return make sense ? 

Remarks. — Why not use auxiliary and principal, transitive, and intransitive, 
inquires an Old-School Grammarian ? 

Because these words cannot be made applicable. These words are em- 
ployed in the old grammars ; but they do not answer the purpose for which 
they are there used better than any other two words. In sub-dividing the 
great verb family, the cause of truth, and the good of both teacher, and pupil 



48 ETYMOLOGY. 

would be subserved as well by the use of rock, and river, &s by the use of 
transitive, and intransitive. True, rock, and river mean nothing which pertains 
to verbs. But do transitive and intransitive mean anything which belongs to 
verbs ? The child is taught to call resembles a transitive verb. But why not 
teach the child to denominate resembles a river verb ! True, there is nothing 
about resembles which is like a river, Nor is there anything about the verb 
resembles, which is like the true meaning of transitive. The old grammars 
tell us that a transitive verb expresses an action which passes from its agent, 
and terminates on an object. But, as resembles does not express any action 
at all, how can it be a transitive verb ? [See this subject in the Class Book 
of Criticism.] 

In the Class Book of Criticism, it is demonstrated that the auxiliary is 
the principal, that the principal is the auxiliary, and that the distinction of 
transitive, and intransitive, is absurd, and contradictory. 

How a word may be known to be a verb. 

Rule I. The branch word which in any one of its forms, will aid 
/, thou, he, or we, in forming the sentensic diction, is a verb ; as, I 
walk; He reads; We write; Thou art. 

Rule II. The branch word which cannot aid 7", thou, he, or we in 
forming the sentensic diction, is not a verb ; as, Of John ; A book ; 
The pen. 

Kemark. — To decide whether a branch word has sentensic power, it may be 
placed in juxtaposition with /, thou, he, or toe. 

Every branch word which has sentensic power, will act in conjunction with 
one of these nominative pronouns in forming the sentensic diction. Hence 
these pronouns are styled 

TEST PRONOUNS. 

I He 

Thou . We 

SPECIMEN OF TESTING. 
1. Could have been punished. 
Could he could. — Could is a verb. — -Rule I. 

have we have. — Have is a verb. — Rule I. 

been* be thou. — Been is a verb. — Rule I. 

punished, I punished. — Punished is a verb. — Rule I. 

2. The good old men. 

TESTED. 

The, the we, we the. — The is not a verb.— -Rule II. 

good, good thou, thou good. — -Good is not a verb. — Rule II. 

old, old we, we old. — Old is not a verb.— Rule II. 

men, men we, we men. — Men, as used above is a trunk word; 

hence it cannot be a verb. But man, in the following 

sentence, is a branch word, and is a verb : — - 

We man our own ship. 

* Whenever the derivative farm of a word is a preventive against the exertion of sentensic 
power, the word should he tested in another form. Hence been is reduced to be, its primitive state. 







ETYMOLOGY. 




{ 




Exercises in 


testing whether words are Verbs 




Awakes^ 


drove 


forbore 


sparingly 


knit 


Awoke 


dramkest 


tore 


scantily 


mowed 


Awaken 


fell 


best 


speak 


many 


Begin 


deal 


little 


steal 


clothed 


Choose 


clothe 


much 


stride 


forbear 


Blow 


drawes^ 


threw 


less 


forsake 


Break 


drive 


trod 


strive 


throw 


Softly 


drinks 


wore 


swear 


tread 


Come 


though 


wove 


hewed 


wear 


Well 


hew 


wrotesi 


former 


weave 


Do 


tallest 


can 


lain 


writes^ 


Bather 


% 


nearer 


crowd 


bore 


Sooner 


forbear 


freeze 


partake 


best 


Chiefly 


forsake 


give 


namely 


blown 


Freeze 


otherwise 


surely 


risen 


broken 


(rive 


else 


indeed 


seen 


forsaken 


Equally 


lie 


goest 


shaken 


generally 


So 


rises 


grow 


any 


frozen 


Thus 


run 


partake > 


never 


given 


Know 


seest 


no 


rise 


off 


Broke 


shake 


not 


runs 


gone 


Choose 


unlike 


smite 


see 


grown 


Didst 


flew 


_ scarcely 


shakes^ 


known 


Drew 


^for 


into 


rarely 


newer 



49 



Now prove all the verbs in the exercises under pages 34, 35, 36, and 39. 



TENSE OF VERBS. 



Tense is the second power of the verb, and is exerted in pointing 
out six different times. \_Temjpus, time.] (Tense is the time-ex/press- 
ing power of the verb.) 



ILLUSTRATION. 

1. We write. \Present tense.] 

2. We wrote. \Past tense.] 

It is important that the learner should make a distinction between the 
tense, and the time which the verb points out by means of the tense. The 
tense of a verb is to the time pointed out, what the hands of a watch are to 
the time pointed out by them. The hands are not the time ; nor is the tense 
the time. 

In general, the tense power is indicated by certain forms of the verb ; as, 
walks, walked, do, did. 

But the time is often varied by exchanging one entire word for another ; 
as, am, was, go, went. That is, I now am ; I then was ; I now go; but I then 
went. 

3 



50 ETYMOLOGY. 

In some instance, the tense of the verb seems to consist of a time- expressing 
power which resides in the verb, even where the verb has no form, indicative 
of the residence of this power ; as, will, shall. 

While will, and shall possess a power to point ont future time, they are 
devoid of every thing like a form for the indication of the residence of this 
power. 

1. I shall write. [Future. ] 

2. They witt walk. [Future.] 

The English language is almost entirely dependent upon these two inceptive 
verbs for the expression of future time. To throw any event, fact, or circum- 
stance into future time by means of the verb, the speaker, or wi'iter must use 
will, or shall. (Should rarely.) 

The tenses of verbs derive their distinctive names from the different times 
which they express. Hence the tenses are divided into 

1. Present, 

2. Middle-Present, 

3. Past, 

4. Prior-past, 

5. Future, and 

6. Prior-future. 

That these disli?iclive words are quite applicable, may be seen from an ex- 
amination of the following divisions of time itself : — 

Men exist on land ; fishes in water ; and events in time. 

The earth is divided into different parts ; and while certain men live in some 
sections, others reside in other sections. These sections are named, that we 
may be able to learn in what certain part, or division, a particular man lives. 
These names are first general ; as, Europe, Asia, Africa, America. They 
are, secondly, particular ; as, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia. They are, 
thirdly, minute ; as, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Mount Vernon. 

In this way we are enabled to locate men ; in this way we are enabled to 
find their exact topography, their exact place of residence. But, if the earth 
was without these divisions, or the divisions without these names, how very 
difficult it would be to ascertain the topography of a man, the place of his 
residence 1 Without these divisions, and names, who could tell me at this 
time, the spot of ground on which Washington resided ; and who could inform 
you upon what part of the great earth Daniel Webster lived. But by these 
divisions, and names, with what ease can you inform me upon what division of 
the earth Washington was placed ; and with what readiness can I inform you 
upon what spot Webster lived ! 

Washington. Webster. 

Mount Vernon. Boston. 

Men are the inhabitants of the earth ; events are the inhabitants of time. 
Men live in nations, states, counties, towns, cities, wards, and neighbourhoods : 
events live in ages, years, months, weeks, days, hours, minutes, and seconds. Men 
live on the earth; events reside in time. And as the earth is divided, and 
sub-divided with a view to a knowledge of the location of men; so time is 
divided, and sub-divided with a view to a knowledge of the topography of 
events. Events exist in time — and, to mark their respective locations, topog- 
raphies, or spots of residence, time itself is divided into six chronological 
districts 



ETYMOLOGY. 51 

For the purpose of speech, time is divided into 

1. Present, 1853. 

2. Middle present, October 27, 1853. 

3. Past, 1852. 

4. Prior-past, 1851. 

5. Future, 1855. 

6. Prior-future, 1854. 

1. Present time is that, whether little, or much, which is represented 
to be in out presence; as, This-day ; This evening; To-day; This 
morning', This year. 

2. Middle present time is the present part of the three parts into 
which one entire period is sub-divided ; as, I have written a letter 
to-day. 

The day is the entire period, and, from the nature of the case, is sub-divided 
into a past, a future, and a present part. The part in which I wrote the letter, 
is the passed part. The part which has not yet come into my presence, is 
the future part of the day ; and the part in which I speak of the event of 
writing the letter, is the present part of the day. The present part comes 
between the passed, and the future part which is illustrated by the second 
figure on the the tense scope ; hence this part is called the middle part, and, 
as this middle part is in my presence while I am speaking of my writing the 
letter, it is styled the middle present, time ; as, 

1. I have written two letters this week. 

3. Past time is that, whether little or much, which has been in our 
presence, but has passed out of it ; as, Last week. 1852. 

4. Prior-past time is that which had passed out of our presence 
before another time passed out of it ; as 1851 before 1852. 

As 1851 had passed out of our presence before 1852, 1851 is prior past 
time. 

5. Future time is that which has not yet come into our presence; 
as, 1860, 1870. 

6. Prior-future time is that which will come into our presence 
before another future time will come ; as. 1860 before 186§ ; Next 
Monday before next Tuesday. 

TENSE. 

Tense is the time expressing power of the verb, and is exerted in 
pointing out six different times, viz. : — 

1. Present, 1853. 

2. Middle present, October 27, 1853. 

3. Past, 1852, 

4. Prior-past, 1851. 

5. Future, 1855. 

6. Prior-future, 1854. 



52 ETYMOLOGY. 

A PARTIAL DESCRIPTION OF THE TENSE SCOPE. 

A few adverbs express time. And the time expressed by these words, and 
that marked by verbs, may be very different. For instance, although now 
expresses present time, it may be used with tvill, and shall which mark future 
time ; as, / will now return, / shall now read the letters. 

Here, while now expresses present time, will, and shall mark future. The 
learner of grammar, however, should know that the time indicated by 
the verb, may differ from that expressed by an adverb. The time of a verb, 
is not the tense of an adverb ; nor is the tense of a verb the tense which may 
be inferred from the nature of the case. From the nature of the case, am 
in " I am to return next week," is of the future tense. But it does not follow 
because future time may be inferred from the nature of this case, that am 
which is actually of the present tense, is of the future ! In deciding the 
tense of am, the learner has nothing to do with the nature of the case — his 
whole attention should be directed to the time marked by am. The time 
which is expressed by adverbs and nouns, and the time which is inferred from 
the nature of the case, may harmonize with the time marked by the verb, and 
they may differ. Hence the pupil should decide the time of the section by 
the tense of the verb. The only case for the pupil's opinion is, what is the 
time marked by the tense of the verb ; for he is not concerned with the tense 
of nouns, and adverbs, nor with inferred time. 

THE TENSE SCOPE. 

The tense scope is a Diagram which contains six hour-glasses so contrived 
that they correspond to the six different tense powers of verbs. 

The purpose of speech demands that time should be divided into six parts ; 
and the nature of the relation which time bears to events, suggests the prin- 
ciple on which the six divisions should be made. The following words are 
the names of these six tenses. 

Present, Middle-present, Past, Prior-passed, Future, Prior-future. 

These figures which are pictorial representations 
of all the ideas expressed by verbs, are arbitrary, 
for others would answer as well. 

The sand in the I glass represents present time 
which is the time that one occupies in speaking. 
The former is in the midst of the time, the 
sand, in the act of forming the sentences which 
mention the different ideas expressed by verbs. 
From the fact that some of the ideas are placed 
in the present time, it is shown that the present time may be event time as 
well as speaking time. Some events are commenced, and. completed in the 
speaking, the present time. Others are begun in the present, but completed 
in the future time. Event a is commenced in glass I, but completed in glassy. 
The speaking time is the only time which is present, for this is the only 
time that is in our presence. True, the time which is prior to the speaking 
time as well as the time which comes after the speaking time is visible. But 
it is made so by a kind of time-glass — yet it is not present time ; for it is 
not in our presence. It has either gone beyond us, or it is not yet come to us. 
The time which had passed off before the present time came to us, as well 
as the time which is to come after the present time shall have left us, is so 
far from us that we are compelled to look through a kind of time-glass to 
behold it. 




ETYMOLOGY. 53 

1 I. 1853. Present time. 

This is present because the whole year is presumed to be in our presence. 

2. m. December 4, 1853. Middle-present. 

Here the year is sub-divided into three parts, viz. a present, a passed, and 
& future. The time up to December 4, is the passed part. The fourth day 
of December is the present part ; and the remainder of the year is the future 
part. 

3. n. 1851. Passed time. That is, time which has gone out of 
our presence. 

4. o. 1849. Prior passed time. That is, time which had passed 
off before another passed time passed off. (1849 before 1851.) 

5. p. 1855. Future time. 

6. q. 1854. Prior-future time. That is, time which will have 
come into our presence before another future time comes. 

ff; John, Present time is the speaking time. Hence you see a man who is 
speaking in the present time glass. He is in the midst of time ; and, as all 
this time is in his presence, whether he exhausts all of it, or not, it is all 
called present time. 

1. Of what is this man speaking? (He is speaking of the two events 
which you see in the I time glass.) 

2. What events are they ? (A part of event a, and all of event b.) 

3. Is it common for events to happen in the present time ? (It is quite 
rare — events generally take place before, or after the time of speaking of 
them.) 

4. Can you give an instance in which the event happens in the present 
time. (I breathe. He runs.) 

5. Can you give a case in which the events had happened before the present 
time? (I breathed, lie ran.) 

6. Can you give an instance where the event happens after the time of 
speaking of it. (Go thou to SGhool. He will run. I shall breathe.) 

7. What events are in the I glass? (Events a, and b.) 

8. Are these events finished in the I glass ? (Event b is finished ; but 
event a is not.) 

9. What do you learn from the state of these events ? (From the fact 
that one event is finished, I learn that events may be finished in present time. 
And, from the fact that one of these events is unfinished here, I learn that 
events may be commenced in present time, and finished in other time.) 

10. Where is the other part of the unfinished event, a, which is in the 
present time glass? (It is in the q time glass.) (And, from this location of 
it, I presume that I am to understand that all events which are merely com- 
menced in the present time, are completed in the future time.) 

11. m. Middle present time Glass. 

John, in this glass you find three connected parts of a whole period of time. 

The first part of the three, to which I shall direct your attention, is the 
part which has already passed off. In this part which -you are enabled to 
see through a time glass only, you find event c. 

The next sub-division part of this glass, which I .wish you to consider, is 
the one that occupies a middle position. 

This middle part is present time — it is present because it is the part of the 
whole period, which comes into the presence of the little man, the little form- 



54 ETYMOLOGY. 

er, who is presenting objects, or themes to the auditor through their 
names. 

[Do you see the former John?] (I do.) 

This little fellow is mentioning the event which occupies the passed time. 

The last of the sub-divisions of time in the m time glass, is just above the 
middle present part. This part has not yet come into the present region. 
Hence it is future time. 

These three sub-divisions of time, make up what is often called minute, 
hour, day, week, month, year, &c. » 

But while each is taken as a whole period for one -purpose, it is taken 
in three parts for another purpose. For instance, a former wishes to 
show that a certain event has taken place in a certain part of this whole 
minute, this whole hour, this whole day, this whole week, this whole month, 
or this whole year. Now, to enable him to show this clearly, and briefly, he 
must divide the whole period into three parts ; for, without this division he 
might not be able to show clearly, and briefly, in what particular division the 
event has happened. 

Now, John, by the use of the verb, have, the former sub-divides the 
whole period of time, into three parts, at once. One of the three is the event 
part, the passed part; one is the speaking part, the present part; and the 
other is the remnant part, the future part. By the means of the following 
description, you will be able to distinguish each part with ease. 

1. The part in which the event happened, is the event part, the 
passed time part. 

2. The part immediately above the passed time part, is the speak- 
ing part, the present time part. 

3. The part just back of the middle present part, is the remnant 
part, the future time part. 

John, an examination will show that the remnant part of this whole period, 
is not in your presence. It lies mfuturo, a region just back of the middle pres- 
ent part of glass m. 

Do you not see the word, "have," in glass m? "I do." This word is 
the means with which an hour, a day, a week, a month, a year, or any other 
entire period of time, may be divided into three parts. 

" I presume that hast, has, hath, had, and hadst are different forms of the 
word, have." Certainly. 

"Why are may, can, must, might, could, would, and should in this glass ?" 
These words are sometimes used with have in have's separating function ; 
as, it may have been written to-day. 

John, now examine the event part of this time glass. 

Although there are three divisions of time in this time glass, but one is 
named in parsing. The middle present time is named in parsing. Do you 
understand that the phrase, middle present, applies to the present time which 
comes just under the future part of the m time glass? 

All time is first future, secondly, present, and thirdly passed. Yesterday, 
this very day, to-day, was future. And although to-day is now present time, 
tO-morrow, it will be passed time. The pupil may inquire if the three sub- 
divisions of time, fall under the preceding ideas : 

1. Prior-passed time is surely passed time. 

2. Prior-future time is certainly future time. 

3. Middle-present time is certainly preset time. 



ETYMOLOGY. 55 

1. PRESENT SENSE. 

The present tense is the time-marking power which the verb exerts 
in representing time to be in" our presence which may be long, or 
short, according to the nature of the case; as, 

1. I am. 2. Henry rides out daily. 3. Virtue is commendable. 
4. These merchants purchase their goods in Manchester. 5. God 
wills whatever comes to pass. 

1. I am. 

Perhaps in I am, there is no more present time than is occupied in uttering 
the sentence. 

2. Henry rides out daily. 

Here, from the nature of the case, the present time marked by rides, may 
be long, or short. Should the practice of riding out daily be continued ten 
years, the period of present time indicated by the tense of rides, must com- 
prise not fewer than one hundred and twenty months. 

3. Virtue is commendable. 
Here the present time has no end. 

4. These merchants purchase their goods in Manchester. 

Here, the amount of present time must be decided by the number of years 
in which these men continue in business. 

Observations. — 1. In very many instances, the time marking 
power is indicated by certain forms of the verb. 

2. Solo verbs which end in s, es, or ih, are of the present tense; as, 
Henry has a book; John hath great faith in dreams. 

3. In general, solo verbs which are used in their primitive state, 
are of the present tense ; as, We walk ; They sing. 

4. Inceptive verbs generally exert the time-marhing power. 

5. No final verb exerts the time-marking power; as, We did walk, 
They shall have been punished. 

6. All medial verbs, except have, suspend their time-marking 
power ; as, they will be punished. 

7. As a medial verb, have exerts its time-marking power only; 
as, They will have been punished. 

8. Where there is but one verb in the half section, it exerts its 
present tense power ; as, John was to return last week. 

present tense concordance. 

[By consulting this Concordance, the learner will find all the variety of 
cases of the present tense.] 

1. Thou art to be the next President. 2. Is he coming to the city soon? 
3. He is to return to America next year. 4. Go thou to school. 5. Be thou 
to school. 5. Be thou here at the appointed hour. 6. I will — be thou 
clean. — [I decree it — be thou clean. (I will it.)] 7. I can call in a few days. 



56 



ETYMOLOGY. 



8. I may come next week. 9. They must return next fall. 10. I might re- 
turn to-morrow if I would. 11. I could go next year if I desired it. 12. I 
would go now if I was not sick. 13. Was I in good health, I would return. 
14. John should attend to his book at home. 15. If he was well he would 
visit us. 16. I wish that we were now in Pennsylvania. 17. Were we out 
of this place, I should be pleased. 18. Had he a knife, he could make his 
own pens. 19. Did he write a good hand, he might be employed as clerk. 
20. Was he to Attend to his affairs properly, he might soon recover from his 
embarrassment. 21. I told him to go to church. 22. He is about to return 
to London. 23. Were the papers here, we would proceed to business. 
24. When the mail arrives, we shall get some news. 25. Would he come if 
he could f 26. I have a book. 27. Thou hast a pen. 28. He has a knife. 
29. I am to have a new book next week. 30. Mad he a book, I would give 
him a lesson. 

2. middle present tense. The middle present tense is the 
time-mar7cing power which a verb exerts in the sub-dividing of any 
period of time into a present, a passed, and a future part, and of 
placing the present sub-division between the other two parts ; as, I 
have written three letters to-day. We have seen them this minute. 



The inceptive verb, have, has, hath, or hast, with one exception, is the only 
verb which has the middle present tense. 

Have, as a medial verb after mag, can, must, might, could, would, or should, 
has the middle present tense ; as, 

C have "| 
J hast 
1 has 
hath 



1. Middle-present, 



written ( 



) 



2. Middle-present, 



may 

can 

must 

might 

could 

would 

should 



- have flown. 



Here, there is no tense section expressed, that decides which one of these 
three times is intended : — 

1. Middle-present, 2. Past 3. Prior-past. 

If, however, we drop the inceptives, have decides the time to which the 
writer wishes to point, to be the middle present. 

Have flown. 

Here, we must say, have flown to-day, this morning, this week, this year, or 
this some other time. 

But where the inceptives are used before have as a medial, we may say, this 
week, or last week. \ 

The tense of the verb is often very feeble. So feeble indeed, is this power 
of the verb, that was it not for the aid which is derived from the nature of 



ETYMOLOGY. 57 

the subject, or from some expressed, or implied time Section in the sentence, we 
could not ascertain in many cases what particular time the writer intends. 

To illustrate the influence which the nature of the case exerts over the 
time-expressing power of the verb, we will take did, was, and have. 

The tense of did is clearly passed ; as, John did return. — 

Yet this passed tense of do, may be rendered present by the nature of the 
case; as, 

Did the boy write a good hand, he might be useful to some mer- 
chant. 

1. Had. — John had my book last week. [Clearly passed.] 

2. Had John a book he could learn his lesson. [Clearly present.] 

1. Was. — Jane was well last week. [Clearly passed.] 

2. Was Jane now well she could return to Philadelphia. [Clearly 
present.] 

May have written, can have Written, must have written, might have written, 
could have written, would have written, and should have written, may be of 
the middle-present, past, or prior-past, as occasion requires. 

1. Middle-present. — They could have come this week. 

2. Past.— They might have come last week. 

3. Prior-passed. — God must have known the fate of men before he 
created them. 

CONCORDANCE. 

1. I have written a book ( , , , )* 2. Thou hast read the 
letter ( , , ) 3. He has been at church ( , , ) 4. She 
hath been at tea ( , , ) 5. Henry must have returned this week. 
6. He may have been here (this evening.) 7. He might have been here (this 
year.) 8. He could have gone (this week.) 9. I would have gone (this week) 
had the boat made a third trip. 10. I have never drunk better water. 

Note. — If the time expressed, or implied, has all passed, off, the tense of 
the verb should be passed; as, 

I never drank better water. 

Here the whole life has ended. Hence the former of the sentence shuts 
himself out of this world ; for his life has closed. And should this departed 
spirit be asked, "when he never drank better water," he must answer, 
"When I was in the body. That is, before I had taken up my connections 
with the earth !" 

3. passed tense. — The passed tense is the fame-marking power 
which the verb exerts in taking a point of time by itself, and repre- 
senting it to be fully passed out of our presence ; as ; 

1. They came to me. 2. The birds flew over the trees. 3. Mary 
loved her little brother. 

CONCORDANCE. 

1. Thou wast the man ( , , .) 

2. Was he coming to the city ? ( , , .) 

* The commas indicate some implied middle-present section ; as, (in my life,) (to-day.") 

3* 



58 ETYMOLOGY. 

3. He was to return (last year.) 4. I had a book ( , , .*) 5. Thou 
hadst a knife ( , , .) 6. Had he come {last week,) he could have 
seen his brother. 

Note. — In this, and in the following instances, the time of the event is 
known to be passed, by the passed tense section," last week" which forms a 
part of the sentence. 

7. If he had called (last evening,) I would have gone to church. 8. He may 
have written {last week.) 9. He must have gone (last evening.) 10. He might 
have seen me (on Monday last) had he called. 11. He could have seen me at 
home (in the. evening) (of last Saturday.) 12. He should have written (last 
evening.) 13. He would return in despite of all his friends could say. 14. He 
would not be consoled; and we could do nothing for him. 15. Had you an 
opportunity to examine the witness ? 

4. Prior-passed tense. — The Prior-passed tense is the time- 
marking power which a verb exerts in pointing out time that had 
passed off be/ore the passed time marked by another verb expressed, 
or implied in another section of the same sentence; as, 

1. [I had seen him before] (he called) (on me.) 

2. [He (that had been dead) sat up J (and , began to speak.) 

Note. — When this tense is under the control of the inceptive, had, it is 
strong, and the priority in the time, is clearly marked. But, when this time- 
marking power is exerted by may have, must have, can have, could have, would 
have, should have, or might have, it is quite feeble ; and was it not aided by 
the context, or by some expressed, or implied prior-tense adverb, or prior-tense 
section, the time pointed out would be as likely to be taken for middle-present^ 
or past, as for prior-passed. 

CONCORDANCE. 

1. I had learned my lesson lefore I went to school. 2. He had had the 
book two days when I called on him. 3. He had been sick several days before 
he sent for a physician. 4. He that had been dead, sat up, and began to 
speak. 5. He may have been there before I arrived. 6. He must have seen 
the man before this event happened. 7. I might, or could have seen the Pres- 
ident before he came. 8. They would have seen the President before they 
left Washington. 9. He should have done it before I came home. 

5. Future tense. — The future tense is the time-marking power 
which a verb exerts in representing the time not only to be future, 
but independent of, and disconnected with, every other future 
time ; as, 

1. I will return next week. 2. Jane shall learn English gram- 
mar soon. 3. Should it rain to-morrow, we shall not return. 

CONCORDANCE. 

1. Will he lend me one thousand dollars? 2. Will you go with me? 
3. Will you take a piece of the cake ? 4. Wilt thou send me a little of the 

* It is not necessary to have an exprtssedpast tense section, to make had mark past time. There 
is always a past tense section implied in the past tense of the verb itself. We should not say : 
She had, a hook to-day, for had indicates that the time alluded to, is all, every whit of it, prior 
to that of speaking. Hence we should say : She had a hook yesterday, last evening, last weeJc, &c. 



ETYMOLOGY. 59 

pudding ? 5. Shall I send you a piece of the pie ? 6. They shall fail upon 
you in anger. 7. Thou shalt not steal. 8. Should they come, we shall see 
them. 9. He shall go, and that too, in haste. 10. If he should return, he 
will call on us. 11. I wish that he would come back. 

Note. — Shall, always, and will almost always have the future tense. Would, 
and should may have this tense in instances like the above, in which these 
words are introduced. 

6. Prior-future tense. — The prior-future tense is the time- 
marking power which a verb exerts* in representing that the future 
time to which allusion is made, will have come into onr presence 
be/ore another future time mentioned in another section ; as, 

1. [I shall have seen them] (by ten o'clock.) 

2. [The two houses will have finished their business when] (the 
king shall come to prorogue them.) 

I have taken this sentence from Murray. I have placed shall 
before come, because the accurate expression of the time intended, 
seems to require the use of this inceptive. 

The prior-future tense lies in the trunk section, and is given by 
will have. Will marks the futurity, and have the priority. 

[The two houses will have finished their business when] (the king 
shall come to prorogue them.) 

CONCORDANCE. 

1. I shall have dined at one o'clock. 2. The two houses will have finished 
their business by the first of March. 3. If he shall have come by seven 
o'clock, p. m., we shall have seen him by eight, p. m., of the same day. 

Note. — It may not be improper to remark here, that will, and shall mark 
the time as after the present time — and that have marks it as prior to the other 
future time mentioned in the same sentence, though in a different section. 
Hence, it is clear that shall, and have, or will, and have must both be em- 
ployed in constituting the prior future tense. 

Questions. — 1. What is tense ? 2. How many different times do the tenses 
of verbs point out? 3. What is the original word from which the word, tense, is 
derived ? 4. Of what is tense the time-marking power ? 5. Between what 
two things is it important for the pupil to make a distinction ? 6. By what 
is the tense of the verb generally indicated ? 7. By what means is the tense 
often varied ? 8. Does tense power ever reside in verbs which have no form 
indicative of the existence of the time-marking power ? 9. By what name 
is the time-marking power of the verb called ? (Tense.) 10. Upon what two 
inceptive verbs is the English language almost entirely dependent for" the ex- 
pression of future time ? 11. From what do the tenses of the verb derive 
their distinctive names? 12. What are these distinctive names? 13. What 
does present mean ? 14. What does middle mean ? 15. What does middle- 
present signify ? 16. What does past mean ? [Gone by, gone off, left us, 
gone out of our presence.] 17. What does prior mean. [Before."] 18. What 
does prior-passed mean ? [Passed off before the passed.] 19. What does future 
mean? 20. What does prior-future mean ? [Before the future.] 21. What 



60 ETYMOLOGY. 

maybe seen from an examination of the following division of time itself? 
[Pages 50, 51, 52, 53.] 22. Where do events exist? 23. Is time divided some- 
what as nations are ? 24. Why is time so divided by the verb ? 25. What 
is the name of the power which by verbs divide time into six parts ? 
26. What is present time ? 27. What is middle-present time ? 28. What time 
is this day, this hour, this week, this age, &c? 29. What time is yesterday, last 
Monday, last week, last year, the last age, &c? 30. What time is 1852 ? 
31. What time is 1851 ? 32. What time is 1851 in respect to 1852 ? 
33. What time is next Saturday in respect to next Sunday ? [Prior-future."] 
84. What time is next Saturday taken by itself? {Future.] 35. What time 
is next Monday in relation to next Tuesday ? 36. What time is next Tues- 
day without regard to any other day ? 37. Is present time long, or short f 
38. Of what tense is am in the following sentence ? 

1. I am taught. 

Does am here mean a short, or a long time ? 

39. Of what tense is have in the following sentences ? 

I. They have read their lessons. 2. We have three apples. 
3. Joseph could have seen me last evening. 

40. What is the past tense ? 41. What is the prior-past tense ? 42. What 
is the future tense ? 43. Is there a difference between future time, and future 
tense ? [A great difference : time is the thing pointed out ; but tense is the 
means by which it is pointed out. Page 49.] 44. What is said of the length 
of time embraced by rides, in Henry rides out daily ? 45. What is said of the 
length of time embraced by am, in I am ? 46. What is said of the length of 
time embraced by is, in, Virtue is commendable ? 47. Does the final verb 
have tense ? 48. What is said of the tense of solo verbs which end in s, es, 
or th f 49. What is said of medial verbs in observation 6, page 54 ? 
50. What is said of the tense of solo verbs which are used in their primitive 
state? 51. What does have, as a medial verb exert? 52. Where there is but 
one verb in the half section, does this verb exert its present tense ? 

[It is proper to say a verb exerts its present tense, for tense is the time-mark' 
ing power of the verb.] 

53. Is was ever of the present tense ? 54. Is did ever present ? 65. Is 
had ever present ? 56. Of what tense is had, in this sentence ? — 

John had learned his lesson before] (night , .) 

Tense forms. — The tense forms are the indicative modifications 
of the verb; as, s, es, th, id, e, a, t, u, d, ed. 

FORMS WHICH INDICATE THE PASSED TENSE. 

ed, a, e, i, o, t, u, id, d. 

1. Present — walk. 12. Passed — got. [o.] 

2. Passed — walked, [ed.] 13. Present — leave. 

8. Present— bid. 14. Passed— left, [t] 

4. Passed — bade, [a e.] 15. Present — sting. 

5. Present — pay. 16. Passed — stwng. [«.] 

6. Passed — paid [id.] 17. Present — am. 

7. Present — blow. 18. Passed — was. [was.] 

8. Passed — blew, [e.] 19. Present — go. 

9. Present — do. 20. Passed — went, [went.] 
10. Passed — did. [id.] 21. Present — are. 

II. Present — get. 22. Passed — were, [were.] 



ETYMOLOGY. 



61 



Remarks. — It may be well to say here, that, in a few instances, other let- 
ters are introduced. They are used, however, merely to give admission to 
the genuine tense letters ; they are not, strictly speaking, tense letters in them- 
selves. For instance, in left, we have / with the t. But, then, / is a mere 
substitute for ave — this substitution is necessary to the admission of t, for 
we cannot incorporate t with leave — leavet. 

It may be well enough to remark here, too, that went is the passed tense 
of go ; was of am ; and were of are. {New words, instead of modifications 
of the primitive state.) 

Division or the passed tense forms. — The passed tense forms 
of the verb, may be divided into Regular, and Irregular. 

1. Regular. [Common."] 
The regular passed tense form is ed ; as, loved, walked, debated?. 
2. Irregular. [Not Common.] 



The irregular passed tense form is the new word, or the modifica- 
tions which are produced in the radical state of the verb by incorpo- 
rating with, or casting from it, one, or more of the following passed 
tense letters : — a, d, e 7 i, o, t } u } w. 

SPECIMEN. 

1. Walk, a verb of the present tense, whose passed tense is indicated by the 

regular passed tense form, ed. 

2. Went, a verb of the passed tense, as is indicated by the irregular form, 

which in this case, is a new word for go. 
N. B. — This short specimen should be examined with care before the fol- 
lowing Exercises, which should be disposed of exactly according to the spe 
cimen, are touched by the learner. 

EXERCISES. 

go (went) 
look (ed) 
shake (oo) 
flow (ed) 
cry (ed) 
lie (ay) 
lay (id) 
say (id) 
be (was) 
do (id) 
am (was) 

The tenseless form of verbs. — The forms of verbs, are 
naturally divided into 

1. Tense forms, and 2. Tenseless forms. 



punished (ed) 


bid (a e) 


lament (ed) 


digged (ed) 


bade — 


lamented ■ — 


dig (u, ed) 


think (ought) 


behave (ed) 


dug — 


bring (ought) 


behaved? — ■ 


see (aw) 


brought — 


returned? — 


saw — 


feel (t) 


repaid? — 


put — 


felt — 


referred — 


read — 


speaks (a e) 


degraded — 


rained (ed) 


speak (a e) 


dethroned — 


snowed (ed) 


sing (a) 


immured — 


fall (e) 


sang — 


translated — 



62 ETYMOLOGY. 

1. tense FORMS. — The tense form of a verb is the form which in- 
dicates the exertion of one of the six time-marking powers of the 
verb; as, Walk, walks, walketh, walked ; Go, went; Be, was, art, 
wast ; Write, wrote. 

Tenseless forms. — The tenseless form of a verb is a form which 
indicates the non-exertion of the six time-expressing powers of the 
verb ; as working, going, gone, been, seeing writing written. 

II. TENSELESS FORMS OF VERBS. 

writing written 

• loving 

"being heen 
-putting 

How constructed. — The tenseness forms of verbs are produced by 
incorporating o, en, ne, n, u, or ing, either with the radical state, or 
with the passed tense form of the verb ; as, 

1. Writteri. 

2. Gone. 

3. Flo ww. 

4. Begwn. 

5. Going. 

Division. — The tenseless forms of verbs are divided into 
1. Be, 2. Have and Be. 

1. The tenseless Be form is the derivative, ing. 

2. The tenseless Have and Be forms are en, ne, n, u, and o. 

1. tenseless be form. — The tenseless Be form of a verb is the 
derivative, ing, and is generally incorporated with the final verb in 
the series where some form of be is employed as an inceptive, or as 
a medial verb ; as, 

1. Jane will be coming. 

2. James is writing. 

3. Charles has been laughing. 

4. Thou art residing. 

5. We are walking. 

2. tenseless have and be form. — The tenseless Have and Be form 
of a verb is the derivative deflection which is incorporated with a 
verb where some form of Be, or Have is employed as an inceptive, or 
as a medial verb ; as, 

1. I have written, [era.] 

2. Thou hast gone too far. [ne.~\ 

3. He had forsaken us. [en.~\ 

Defective verbs. — A defective verb is one which has not all the 



ETYMOLOGY. 



63 



forms common to the class to which the defective verb belongs ; as, 
Bet, Burst, Forecast, Put, Let. 

These words belong to the class of solo verbs ; but they have not 
all the forms which solo verbs in general possess. 

1. Write is a solo verb, and has these eight forms : write, writes, 
writest, writeth, wrote, wrotest, written, writing. 

2. Bet is a solo verb, and has but these five forms : bet, bets, bettest, 
betteth, betting. 

3. Burst is a solo verb, and has these five forms only : burst, bursts, 
burstest, bursteth, bursting. 

Burst has no passed tense form : Burst has no Ha ve and Be form. 
Hence, when have, or be is used before burst, burst must be used in 
its primitive form ; as, The boiler will soon be burst, [not bursted.J 

Write. — Write has a passed tense form which is wrote. Write has 
the tenseless Have and Be form common to solo verbs. I wrote last 
evening ; I have written. 

1. The passed tense form of write— ^-wrote. 

2. The tenseless Be form of write — He will be writing. 

3. The tenseless Have and Be form of write — Be written, Save 
written. 

Remakes. — The following presentation of defective verbs, is designed to 
aid the pupil in comprehending several important Rules in Syntax, intended 
to guide him in the use of these verbs. And should he not become familiar 
with these verbs as here presented, he will be utterly unable to apply the 
Rules to which his attention will soon be directed. 

The following defective verb has no form but its primitive state, in which it 
is employed in all cases : 

Beware. — 1. This defective verb may be final ; as, You should beware of 
excess in all things. 

2. Beware may be a solo verb if used in the imperative diction ; as, Beware 
ye of false prophets. 

Defective Vekbs That have the tenseless Be form ; but which have no passed 
tense form, nor any tenseless Have and Be form. 
[These verbs substitute their primitive state for the passed tense form of which they are destitute.] 



Had beset 
Is Resetting 
Have bespread 
Was bespreading 
Has cut 
Was cutting 
Hath shut 
Am shutting 
Have split 
Be split 
Were splitting 
Have let Been let 
Was letting 
Hadst put 



Been put 
Be putting 
Hast rid 
Be vidding 
Hadst set 
Am setting 
Has dispread 
Was dispread 
Was dispreadmy 
Have forecast 
Are forecast 
Were forecasting 
Had thrust 
Be thrust 



Be thrustm^ 
Hath shred 
Was shred 
Is shredding 
Has sweat 
Was sweat 
Is sweating 
Hath shed 
Are shedding 
Had burst 
Was bursty 
Been cast 
Been casting 
Hadst hit 



Am hit 
Is hitting 
Has hurt 
Was hurt 
Were hutting 
Had knit 
Be knit 
Be knittm^ 
Had spread 
Were spread 
Are spreading 
Have wet 
Was wet 
Are wetting 



64 ETYMOLOGY. 

Questions. — 1. What is the primitive state of writes ? [Write.] 

2. What is the primitive state of puts? [Put.'] 

3. Wherein does write differ from put ? 

( Write, and put are both primitive forms : but, then, write 'will not receive 
either have or be before it ; for we cannot say, have write, was write. But we 
must say have put, was put. 

4. What do you understand by have, and be ? 

Have means have in all its forms ; as, had, hath, hadst, has, hast, having. 
Be means be in all of its forms ; as, am, art, was, were, is, wast, are, were, 
been, being. 

5. What is the ienseless Be form of a verb ? 

[The tenseless Be form is the derivative suffix, ing, and is affixed to a final 
verb before which be, in some one of its forms comes ; as, They will be coming ; 
They are writm^.] 

This form, ing, is called tenseless because it is a form which indicates the 
non-exertion of the time-expressing power in the verb to which it, ing, belongs ; 
as, John is writing. 

Here, the time is pointed out by is ; this is obvious from the consideration 
that the use of was before writing, would change the time from the present to 
the passed : 1. John is writing ; 2. John was writing. 

I know that the old Grammars call ing the present participle ! 

6. Why is ing styled the Be form ? [Because ing generally can not be affixed 
to any verb which is not preceded directly, or indirectly by Be. ] 

7. What is the tenseless Have and Be form of a verb ? 

The tenseless Have and Be form of a verb, is the derivative form which is 
incorporated with a final verb when some form of Be, or Have is employed 
before it ; as, 

1. I h&ve written. 2. He has forsaken us. 3. It is written. 4. The saddle 
will have been done. 5. Thou hast gone too far. 6. They had smitten. 
7. They will be smitten. 

8. Why is this tenseless form denominated Have and Be 9 [Because this 
form is produced by these two verbs — be, have.] 

9. Does not be produce the ing form ? [Yes : but have never produces the 
ing form. We cannot say, have writing, had wstiking. We say, be writing, 
was walking.] 

10. Do you see, then, that ing is not a Have and Be form of the verb ? 

11. Do you see that ing is a Be form ? 

12. Do you see that en is a Have and Be form? [Be writtm, Have 
written.] 

Remarks. — 1. Inceptive verbs have no tenseless forms. 

2. All verbs, except those which are always inceptive, have the 
tenseless Be form ; as, heing, having, wilhVi^. 

3. Many final verbs have no tenseless Have and Be form ; as, put, 
beset, shred, loved, walked, leave, make, meant, punished. 

4. All final verbs which are without the tenseless Have and Be form, 
must be used in their primitive state, in their passed tense, or in their 



ETYMOLOGY. 65 

tenseless Be form, when have, or be falls directly before them ; as, I 
have put up the hook; They had walked? off; The horse has been 
walked slowly ; We had ip&id the debt ; Joseph has been wilting. 

"Remarks. — 1. The verb, cost, is a legitimate member of this class of defec- 
tive verbs — but the sense of this word will not allow us to use Be with it, un- 
less we give the word the Tenseless Be form ; as, Was costing; Be costing; 
This job is costing too much money ; Thy extravagance is costing father too 
much. 

We cannot say, however, The hat was cost too much ; The apples have been 
cost too much., 

2. Although bid, knit, and slit are not of this class of defective verbs, they 
are often used as though they are. It is common to find have bid, for have 
bidden : nor is it unusual to find, I bid him last evening, for I bade him last 
evening. 

3. Although knit has the regular passed tense form, it often uses its prim- 
itive state for this form ; as, They have k.dt several hours ; The yarn is all 
knit up. 

[They have knitted several hours ; The yarn is all knitted up.] 

4. Quit is often used for quitted ; as, We quit last evening at seven o'clock. 
[We quitted.'] 

5. Slit has the regular passed tense form, but is not unfrequently used after 
have, and be in its primitive state ; as, We have slit the iron bars into nail 

"rods ; This dog's ear has been slit. 

[We have slitted. This dog's ear has been slitted.] 

The English language is full of these obliquities from its own principles, 
from its ownself. That they are the offspring of ignorance, is beyond a doubt. 
Still, as long usage is on their side, these obliquities have become strong, if 
not comely. We have heard, "He lit the candle," too long to substitute 
lighted for lit. When vice turns virtue out of doors, under the sanction of the 
professed preachers of virtue, it soon becomes difficult to tell virtue from vice, 
or vice from virtue! 

6. Although beat is not destitute of the Have and Be form, we generally 
find it after these verbs without this form. Been beat ; Have beat. 

[Been beaten ; Have beaten.] 

Question. — Is the regular passed tense form of a verb, a Have and Be form ? 
[The genuine Have and Be form of a verb is a tenseless form. Hence the 
passed tense form of a verb, whether regular, or irregular, is not a genuine 
Have and Be form. Still, Have and Be may always be used before any 
verb to which the regular passed tense form is actually affixed; as, These 
plates have been engraved. ' 

I. Verbs which not only possess the tenseless Have and Be form, but the regular 
% passed tense form. 

[Although the regular passed tense form of a verb may always be substi- 
tuted for the tenseless Have and Be form, yet the tenseless Have and Be form 
can never be substituted for the regular passed tense form. We can say, They 
have sawed tiie wood : but we cannot say, They sawn the wood. We must 
use the regular passed tense, They sawed the wood.] 



66 






ETYMOLOGY. 




Present Tense. 




Passed Tense form. 


Tenseless Have and Be form. 




grave 


have graved 


had graven 




engrave 




is engraved 


was engraven 




hew 




hewed 


hewn 




load 




loaded 


laden 




mow 




mowed 


mown 




rive 




rived 


riven 




saw 


, 


sawed 


sawn 




shape 




shaped 


shapen 




shave 




shaved 


shaven 




shear 




sheared 


shorn 




show 




showed 


shown 




sow 




sowed 


sown 




strow, or strew 


strow, or strewed 


strewn 




swell 




swelled 


swollen 


I 


thrive 




thrived 


thriven 




wax 




waxed 


waxen 


II. Veebs That) 


lave the Irrcg 


ular passed tense form 


which they substitute for a 






tenseless Have and Be form 




Present Irregul 


ar Passed Tense 


form. Present. 


Irregular Passed Tense form 


abide 


have abode 




pay 


had paid 


behold 


is beheld 




read 


was read 


bend 




bent 




rend 


rent 


beseech 


besought 




ride 


rode 


bind 




bound 




say 


said 


bleed 




bled 




seek 


sought 


breed 




bred 




sell 


sold 


bring 




brought 




send 


sent 


buy 




bought 




shoe 


shod 


cling 




clung 




shoot 


shot 


dare 




durst 




shrink 


shrunk 


dwell 




dwelt 




sink 


sunk 


feed 




fed 




sit 


sat 


feel 




felt 




sleep 


slept 


fight 




fought 




sling 


slung 


find 




found 




slink 


slunk 


flee 




fled 




speed 


sped 


fling 




flung 




spend 


spent 


get 




got 




spin 


spun 


grind 




ground 




stand 


stood 


hang 




hung 




stick 


stuck 


have 




had 




sting 


stung 


hear 




heard 




stink 


stunk 


hold 




held 




sweep 


swept 


keep 




kept 




swing 


swung 


lay 




laid 




teach 


taught 


lead 




led 




tell 


m told 
~ thought 


leave 




left 




think 


lend 




lent 




weep 


wept 


lose 




lost 




win 


won 


make 




made 




wind 


wound 


mean 




meant 




wring 


wrung 


meet 




met 









ETYMOLOGY. 



67 



[These verbs substitute tbe regular, or the irregular passed tense form for a tenseless Be 
and Have form ; as Me have ye bereaved of my children — or, Me ye have bereft of my child- 
ren.— Genesis, xlii.] 

N. B. It is right also to use these forms -without have, and be; as, Me ye bereaved of my 
goods ; Me ye bereft of my substance. 

III. Verbs That have both the regular, and the irregular passed tense form, but 





no tenseless Have and Be form. 


Present. 


Regular Passed Tense form. 


Irregular Passed Tense form. Tenseless Be form. 


bereave 


have bereaved 


have bereft were bereaving 


build 


is builded 


is built are building 


catch 


catched 


caught catching 


clothe 


clothed 


clad clothing 


deal 


dealed 


dealt dealing 


dig 


digged 


dug digging 


gild 


gilded 


gilt gilding 


gird 


girded 


girt girding 


kneel 


kneeled 


knelt kneeling 


shine 


shined 


shone shining 


work 


worked 


wrought working 



Remarks. — 1. Hang and dare are not of this class. Hang, to hang up, is 
not capable of receiving ed, the regular passed tense form. And hang, to take 
away life by hanging, always has the regular passed tense form ; as, The 
robber was hanged. 

2. Dare, to venture, is not regular ; hence it cannot have the regular, and 
the irregular passed tense form. We do not say, He dared go ; but, He 
durst go. 

And dare, to challenge, is regular without the power to be otherwise. We 
do not say, They durst us to meet them ; but they dared us to meet them. 

IV. Verbs Which have the irregular passed tense form, and the tenseless Be 
and Have form; but which often substitute their primitive state for their tense- 
less Be and Have form. 

Primitive state. Passed Tenseoform. Tenseless Have and Be form. 

beat beat* beaten 

bid bade bidden 

forbid forbade forbidden 

It is proper to say,have bid, or have bidden. But it is not proper to say, Have bade. Nor is 
it proper to say, We then bid him to go. Bid is not the passed tense form. We then bade him 
to go, is right. 

V. Verbs Which have the irregular passed tense form, and the tenseless Be 
and Have form, but which often substitutes their passed tense form for their 
tenseless Have and Be form. 

Present. Irregular Passed Tense form. Tenseless Be and Have form. 

bite been bit been bitten 

cleave (to split) was cleft was cloven 

chide is chid is chidden 

forget art forgot art forgotten 

hide ar^xid are hidden 

spit have*bipa,t have spitten 

Question. — Wherein does bite differ from bit ? \Have, and Be may be used 
before the passed tense of bite ; The child has been bit. 

But neither have, nor be can be used before the passed tense of bid; as we 
cannot say, The child has been bade to go.] 
* Beat has no passed tense form except its radical state which is as often present as passed. 



68 ETYMOLOGY. 

VI. Verbs That have the irregular passed tense form, and the tenseless Be 
and Have form which they never exchange for any other. 
Present. Irregular Passed Tense form. Tenseless Have and Be form. 



awake 


awoke 


hast awaken 


bear (to carry) 


bore 


art borne 


bear (to bring forth) 


bare 


born 


begin 


began 


begun 


blow 


blew 


blown 


break 


broke 


broken 


choose 


chose 


chosen 


come 


came 


come 


do 


did 


done 


draw 


drew 


drawn 


drive 


drove 


driven 


drink 


drank 


drunk 


fall 


fell 


fallen 


fly 


flew 


flown 


forbear 


forbore 


forborne 


forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


freeze 


froze 


frozen 


give 


gave 


having given 


go 


went 


being gone 


grow 


grew 


grown 


know 


knew 


known 


lie 


lay 


lain 


partake 


partook 


partaken 


rise 


rose 


risen 


run 


ran 


run 


see 


saw 


seen 


shake 


shook 


shaken 


sing 


sang 


sung 


slay- 


slew 


slain 


slide 


slid 


slidden 


smite 


smote 


smitten 


speak 


spoke 


spoken 


steal 


stole 


stolen 


stride 


strode 


stridden 


strive 


strove 


striven 


swear 


swore 


sworn 


take 


took - 


taken 


tear 


tore 


torn 


throw 


threw 


thrown 


thread 


trod 


trodden 


wear 


wore 


worn 


weave 


wove 


woven 


write 


wrote 


written 


be 


was 


. have been* 


am 


was 


been 


art 


wast 


been 


are 


Were 


been 



* Been is only the Tenseless Have form of be. We cannot say, Be been, is been. 



ETYMOLOGY. 69 

TRIFLECTION OF VERBS. 

The triflection of a verb is a full systematic presentation of the 
verb inflections. 

The inflections of the verb, are naturally divided into 
1. Nominative, 2. Tense, and 3. Tenseless. 

1. The nominative inflections are s, es, th, t, and st, and are con- 
trolled, and produced by the indications of the nominative nouns, 
and pronouns ; as, John writes, Thou writes^. 

2. The tense inflections are the primitive, and the derivative forms 
of verbs, which indicate the exertion of time-marking power; as, d, 
ed, a, &c. 

3. The tenseless inflections are the derivative forms of the verb, 
which indicate the non-exertion of all time-marking power ; as, en, 
u, ing, &c. 

TRIFLECTION OF be. 





THE 


HALF 


SECTION. 




Insentensic Diction. 


Present Tense 
To be. 






Prior -past Tense. 
To have been. 



THE WHOLE SECTION. 

Sentensic Imperative Diction. 

Present — Be thou, be you, ori>e ye. 

Sentensic Affirmative Diction. 

PRESENT TENSE. 





TJni. 




Plus. 




Formative Indication. 
Self-subject Indication. 
Subjective Indication. 


I 

Thou 
He 


am 
art 

is 


We 

You 
They 


are 
are 
are 




MIDDLE PRESENT TENSI 


\. 




Formative Indication. 
Self-subject Indication. 
Subjective Indication. 


TJni. 

I 

Thou 
He 


have been 
hast been 
has been 


Plus. 
We 
Ye 
They 


have been 
have been 
have been 


- 


PASSED TENSE. 






Formative Indication. 
Self-subject Indication. 
Subjective Indication. 


Uni. 
I 

Thou 
He 


was 

wast 

was_ 


Plus. 
We 
You 
They 


were 
were 
were 




PRIOR-PASSED TENSE. 






Formative Indication. 
Self-subject Indication. 
Subjective Indication. 


Uni. 
I 

Thou 
She 


had been 

hadst been 

had been 


Plus. 
We 
You 
They 


had been 
had been 
had been 



70 


ETYMOLOGY. 








FUTURE TENSE. 








TJni. 


Plus. 




Formative Indication. 


I will be 


We 


will be 


Self-subject Indication. 


Thou wilt be 


Ye 


will be 


Subjective Indication. 


He will be 


They 


will be 




TJni. 


Plus. 




Formative Indication. 


I shall be 


We 


shall be 


Self-subject Indication. 


Thou shall be 


Ye 


sAaZZ be 


Subjective Indication. 


She shall be 


They 


sAaZZ be 



PRIOR-FUTURE TENSE. 

TJni. 

I shall have been 
Thou t&tft have been 
It wiZZ /iave been 

• PRESENT TENSE. 

Sentensic Subfirmative Diction. 
TJni. 
If I am 
If thou art 
If it is 
How is it known that the time is present ? Answer- 
verb. If it was future, it would be, be ; as, if I be. 
That is, If I should be. 

But, because it is am, art, is, and are, no inceptive verb, denoting futurity, 
can be employed. 
Passed tense of Be, changed to the present by supposition, concession, &c. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Negative Sentensic Affirmative Diction. 



Formative Indication. 
Self-subject Indication. 
Subjective Indication. 



Formative Indication. 
Self-subject Indication. 
Subjective Indication. 



Plus. 

We shall have been 
You shall have been 
They shall have been 



Plus. 
If we are 
If ye are 
If they are 

-By the form of the 



Formative Indication. 
Self-subject Indication. 
Subjective Indication. 

Formative Indication. 
Self-subject Indication. 
Subjective Indication. 



Was I well, we would attend. 

Wast thou a good writer, I would employ thee. 

I wish he was here. [•#<?.] 

TJni. Plus. 

If I was now there If we were now there 

If thou wast now there If ye were now there 
If she was now there If they were now there 

IMPLENARY NOTATION, FUTURE TENSE. 

Sentensic Subfirmative Diction. 

When there are doubt, and futurity, shall, or should may be omitted ; yet it is better, in all 
such cases, to express the inceptive verb. 





TJni. 




Plus. 




Formative Indication. 


If I 


, be 


whether we 


, be 


Self-subject Indication. 


If thou 


, be 


unless ye 


, be 


Subjective Indication. 


If he 


, be 


lest they 


, be 



This implenary state of the section, however, produces no beauty, nor any other good ; it is 
therefore, better to give the plenary expression ; as, If thou shouldst be at my house next week 
thou wilt find me at home. 

1. Tenseless Be form — being. 2. Tenseless Have form — been. 

Note. — Many learned, and otherwise great men say, that strictly speaking, 
there are but three times, viz. ; the present, the passed, and the future. But I 



ETYMOLOGY. 



71 



believe, notwithstanding the contrary opinion is expressed by highly distin* 
guished scholars, that there is but one actual time : the present is the only 
time which has a real being. What is called future time, has not yet come 
into being, and what is called passed has gone out of being. Hence, strictly 
speaking, the future is not real time, nor is the passed actual time. But not 
only these divisions seem necessary for the communication of ideas, but the 
three sub-divisions of time ; middle-present, prior-past, and prior-future. 

Remarks. — What in this system is denominated Triflection, is styled in the 
old theory, Conjugation. But, as the. word, Conjugation, is a misnomer, I 
cannot consent to use it. 

It may be gratifying to the curious to see the definition which the old school 
Grammarians give of Conjugation. Such are referred to the Class Book of 
Criticism. 

Questions. — 1. What is triflection ? 2. What is the meaning of tri ? [Tris, 
three.] 3. How are the verb inflections divided ? 4. What are the nomina- 
tive inflections ? 5. Why are these inflections styled nominative ? 6. Will 
you give all the tense inflections ? 7. What are the tenseless forms of verbs ? 
8. What are the nominative forms of verbs ? 9. Are the tenseless forms the 
primitive, or the derivative state of the verb ? 10. What is the Tenseless Be 
form of walk? 11. What is the Tenseless Have and Be form of walk? 
I Walk has no Tenseless Have and Be form.] 12. Is it proper, then, to 
use Have and Be before walk ! [Yes. — Where a final verb has no Have and 
Be form, these inceptive verbs may be used with the final verb in its primi- 
tive state, or in its passed tense form ; as, We have put up the book ; They 
have walked a mile ; The horse must have been walked over the bridge.] 



IV. THE PREPOSITION DENOMINATION. 

The Preposition denomination is a small class of insentensic branch 
words of the first rank, which make sense with the objective nouns, 
the objective pronouns, and the objective trunk word combinations of 
insentensic sections; as, John is (in the house) {in which) we heard 
(o/'him.) He went (for to see his mother.) [in. of. for.'] 



Words 


of 


the Preposition Denomination. 


above 




atwixt 


con. excepting 


about 




ad. before 


con. ad. for 


across . 




behind 


from 


ad. adj. after 




below 


ad.va. 


against 




beneath 


instead-of 


amidst 




con. beside 


into 


amid 




con. besides 


ad. of 


among 




because-of 


ad. off 


as-for 




between 


on 


as-touching 




betwixt 


over 


amongst 




beyond 


ver. past 


around 


cor 


,. ad. but 


ver. regarding 


con. adv. as 




by 


ver. respecting 


as-to 




ver. concerning 


adj. round 


- adv. at 




down 


ver. save 


athwart 




during 


ad. to 


atween 




con. except 


ver. touching 



72 



ETYMOLOGY. 



adj. toward under upon 

towards underneath with 

through unto within 

throughout ad. up without 

Note. — Where any of these words close a trunk, or bsentensic branch section, 
they are adverbs ; as, He was spoken to; The books were called for, 

V. THE CONJUNCTION DENOMINATION. 

The Conjunction denomination is a small class of insentensic branch 
words of the first rank, which always give sentensic sections with which 
they make sense ) as, Joseph went (because John called him.) [be- 
cause.'] 

The words of the Conjunction Denomination. 
and 

although 
also 
prep. ad. as 

as-well-as 
ad. again 
prep, beside 
prep, besides 

ver. being 
prep, but 
adj. both 
adj. either 
prep . except 
prep, excepting 
n. ad. adj. else 
ad. adj. even 
ad. adj. farther 
ad. prep, for 

[I would recommend both teacher, and pupil to read with care what is said 
on the preposition, and the conjunction, in Brown's Exegesis, and Class Book 
of Criticism.] 

1. And therefore. — Where and is used with therefore, and there- 
fore must be taken as one conjunction, or and must be omitted. [And 
therefore is bad. 

2. As also. — When as is used with also, as also must be taken as 
one conjunction, or as must be omitted. [As also is bad.] 

When and follows both, both is a conjunction, and gives the very 

2 2 2* 

section to which and belongs ; as, Henry is both virtuous and brave, 
l .1 2 l 2 2 

Illustrated. — [Henry is both virtuous,] (both and he is brave.) 

3. As well as, in the sense of and, is a conjunction. 

4. Both, followed by and, is a conjunction. 

5. Either, followed by or, is a conjunction. 

6. Neither, followed by nor, is a conjunction. 

7. Not only, followed by but, is a conjunction. 



%dj. ad. further 




adj. neither 


furthermore 




or 


ad. hence 




nor 


subad. however 




ad. otherwise 


howsoever 




ver. provided 


howbeit 




ad. since 


if 


adj 


ad. still 


inasmuch 


sub 


. ad. so 


lest 




than 


ad. likewise 




ad. then 


moreover 




ad. thence 


ad. nay 




therefore 


nathless 




though 


not-only 




unless 


notwithstanding 




whereas 


ad. adj. no 




whether 


ad. now 




ad. yet 



ETYMOLOGY. 73 

8. Since, in the sense of for this reason, is a conjunction. 

9. Thence, in the sense of therefore, is a conjunction. 

10. Hence, in the sense of therefore, is a conjunction. 

11. Provided, in the sense of if, is a conjunction. 

12. However, in the sense of 6w£, is a conjunction. 

13. Then, in the sense of therefore, is a conjunction. 

14. When because can be pnt for /or, /or is a conjunction. 

VI. THE ADJECTIVE DENOMINATION. 

The Adjective denomination is a far^e class of insentensic branch 
words of the /rsi rank, which make sense sometimes with nominative, 
and sometimes with objective nouns ; as, what man came ? What 
man shall I call ? Which person came 1 Of wAicA person did he 
speak ? 

VII. THE SUB-ADJECTIVE DENOMINATION. 

The sub-adjective denomination is a small class of insentensic branch 
words of the second, third, fourth, or fifth rank, which make sense 

2 3 2 

with adjectives, and sub-adjectives ; as, too cold weather, mwcA too 

4 3 2 4 3 2 

cold weather, very much too cold weather, This boy's mother's father's 
son is here. 2 2 

1. It is so cold that I must have a fire. 2. There is a milk white 
bird. 3. A blood red leaf. 

CoZd weather. Cold is an adjective. 
^Too cold weather. Too is a sub-adjective. 
Much too cold weather. Much and too are subadjectives. 
Very much too cold weather. Very, much, and Zoo are sub-adjec- 
tives. 
This boy's mother's father's son. This, boy's, and mother's, are sub* 

adjectives. 

VIII. THE ADVERB DENOMINATION. 

The adverb denomination is a large class of insentensic branch 
words of the second rank, which always make sense with verbs ; as, 
John is here. James is not there, [here, not, there.] 

IX. THE SUB-ADVERB DENOMINATION. 

The sub-adverb denomination is a small class of insentensic branch 
words of the third, fourth, fifth or sixth rank, which make sense with 

3 
adverbs, or sub-adverbs ; as Jacob wrote his copy very slowly, and 

3 4 3 

quite exact. How very fast John walks. 

4 



74 



ETYMOLOGY. 



X. THE INTERJECTION DENOMINATION. 



The interjection denomination is a small class of objective sentential 
trunk words which reject all branch words, and express, individually, 
the meaning of an entire sentence, in the most hurried, and inexpres- 
sive manner ; as, that my grief were thoroughly weighed, and my 
calamities laid together in the balance, for the arrows of the Al- 
mighty are within me. 

This is the reply of Job to those who charged him with sin, folly, and im- 
patience. Here, is synonomous with the sentence, / most heartily wish that. 

The words of the Interjection Denomination. 



ah 






ha 


holla 


pish 


aha 






ha ha ha 


hurrah 


poh 


alack 






ha hah 


huzza 


pshaw 


alas 


ver 


adj 


hail 


ver. hush 


pugh 


all hail 




ver. 


hark 


io 


ver. see 
soho 


avaunt 






heighho 


lo 


ver. begone 






heigh 


ver. look 


adj. strange 


ver. behold 






hey 


mum 


tush 


eh 






heydey 





adj. welcome 


fie 






hist 


ad. off 


welladay 


foh 






ho 


oh 


adj. what 


Brown's C 


LASS 


Book of Criticism 


has several 


pages of reflections 


this class of words 











SUBDIVISION OP ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives are subdivided upon the basis of the means by which the 
words are rendered adjectives, into 1. Suffix adjectives, 2 Abjix ad- 
jectives, 3. Application adjectives, and 4. Absolute adjectives. , 

I. SUFFIX ADJECTIVES. 

A suffix adjective is a word which is made an adjective by a suffix; 
as, Metal metallic, Music musical, John John's, Eagles eagles', Me 
my, He his, Me mine, Abbey abb&tical, Parent parents, Tutor tu- 
torial 

II. ABFIX ADJECTIVES.* 

An abjix adjective is a word which is made an adjective by cutting 
off a suffix; as, Goodness good, Redness red, Streng^A strong, Eager- 
ness eager, Slow/y slow, Rapidly rapid, Accuracy accurate, Correctly 
correct, Positivercess positive. 

III. APPLICATION ADJECTIVES. 

An application adjective is a word which is made an adjective by 
its application alone; as, Stove pipe, Leather shoe, Indignation meet- 
ing, Application adjectives, Gold ring, Man servant, John Adams. 

* Ab. taking from. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



75 



IV. ABSOLUTE ADJECTIVES.* 

An absolute adjective is a word whose adjective character is inde- 
pendent of any change in, or application of the word; as, A man, 
The book, Any pen, Some knife, All children, These apples, Those 
shoes. 

Suffixes which render words Adjectives. 

iar, ry, ie, at, an, ish,ful, ly, iny, id, ous, ed, y, ty, ine, ive, some, ese, less, ir, 

irs, is, s\ 

Note. — Nouns may have some of these adjective terminations ; as, The 
Republic of America. But the pupil will not be confused from this fact, if 
he gives close attention to the following tests : 

1 . When trunk words have any of the adjective terminations, they are nouns ; 
as, Party, The Writing is good. 

2. When branch words have adjective terminations, they are generally ad- 
jectives; as, Party feelings, Writmy table. 

Some verbs end with ed, en, iny, and ly ; as, He -wsMced, Henry has written, 
I am writmy, Birds fly. 
Adverbs, too, may end in ly ; as Thirdly, Correctly. 







Adjectives made from Pronouns. 


Pronouns. 






Suffix Adjectives. 


I 


. 


. 


My, mine 


We 


. 


. , 


Our, ours 


Thou 




. , 


Thy, thine 


Ye or you 


. 


'"/ Your, yours 


He 


. 


. 


His 


She 


. 


. 


Her, hers 


It 


. 


. 


Its 


They 


, 


. 


Their, theirs 


Who 


. 


• v « 


Whose, whosesoever 


One 


. 


. 


One's, ones' 


Each other 


. 


Other's, others' 


One another 


. , 


9 Another's 


Which 
What 
As 
That 








-* 


" 




• 


• 




.' 


.' 


Those, [osc] 


This 


. 


. 


These, [ese.'] 



Questions. — 1. Upon what basis are adjectives sub-divided ? 2. What is 
an absolute adjective ? 3. What is the meaning of absolute ? 4. What is 
James, in Nancy James ? 5. W T hat is Nancy, in Nancy James ? 6. What is 
a suffix adjective ? 7. What is John's, in John's pen ? 8. What is the mean- 
ing of suffix? 9. What is affixed to John, to render it an adjective ? 10. 
What kind of an adjective is John, in John Burton ? [An application.] 11. 
What is an abfix adjective t 12. What does ab mean ? 13. What is good, in 

* Absolute means absolved, or set free from. Hence, when the adjective character of a word 
is absolved, set free from, all changes which are often made in words to render them adjectives, 
and also set free from all applications from which some words derive their adjective character, 
the adjective itself becomes absolute. An absolute adjective is a word which, if we may so speak, 
is born an adjective. 



76 ETYMOLOGY. 

Good fruit ? 14. What is fruit, in Fruit basket ? 15. What is famed, in the 
following sentence ? " Cicero was famed for eloquence." 16. What is famous ? 
17. What is fameless? 18. What is famed, in These highly famed men ? 19. 
What is fame-giving, in Fame-giving tongues ? 20. What is fame, in Great 
fame ? 21. What is family, in Family circle ? 22. What kind of an adjective 
is familiar ? [This word is rendered an adjective by the rejection of %.] - 

Specimen. — Salt water contains salt. 
Salt is an application adjective. 
water is a nominative noun. 
contains is an objective verb. 
salt is an objective noun. 

Exercises to be. parsed exactly according to the preceding Specimen. 

1. The stove pipe of the Franklin stove is old. 

2. Which man came? 

3. No man servant answered. 

4. All these head dresses are new. 

5. Yonder is a church bell. / 

6. The bridle strap is on the plough beam. 

7. Have you used your new razor strop ? 

8. John Foster saw James Johnson. 

9. Does Miss Jane Boston like oyster plant? 

10. Was the lad insolent? 

11. All ladies are modest. 

12. I like ice water in the summer season. 

13. Who has ever seen a sun beam by moon light ? 

14. Gas light, Astral lamp. 

15. Vocal music, Girard College, Fulton steamboat. 

16. William Baker is Attorney General. 

17. A certain man planted a vineyard. 

18. Captain Henry saw Colonel Shields. 

19. Mayor Barker fell in with Senator Webster. 

20. Mr. Collamer is now Postmaster General. 

INDICATION. 

The indication of a word, is the expression of something in addition 
to the Dictionary meaning of the word. 

For instance, the word red means a certain colour. But in addition to this, 
this word carries the idea that the subject, or the thing to which this colour 
belongs, is taken by itself; as, the red bird. Now, the fact that this bird is 
taken alone, is indicated by the adjective red. This indication is in addition to 
the Dictionary signification of this word. Again, redder bird. Here, by the 
use of er, it is indicated that this bird is not taken alone, but with another 
thing. This indication by er is in addition to the Dictionary meaning of this 



ETYMOLOGY. 77 

adjective. Hedest bird. Here, by the use of est it is indicated that there are 
three, or more birds compared, and that this one is found to have a greater 
amount of this colour than any other of the three, or more. 

Adjectives, sub-adjectives, adverbs and sub-adverbs have INDICA- 
TIONS. These indications are absolute, bi-relative, and tri-relative. 

I. THE ABSOLUTE INDICATION 

Is the expression that the thing, class, or family is taken alone; 
taken without comparison ; as, high tree, small school, good men. 
(high, small, good.) (Absolute, from absolvo, to set free, to cut loose 
from every other thing.) 

II. THE BI-RELATIVE INDICATION 

Is the expression that the thing, class, or family is taken not 
alone, but in a comparison with one other thing, class, or family, 
which it excels in whatever is mentioned; as, that tree is higher than 
this, this school is smaller than that, these men are better than those. 
(Bi, from bis f two.) 

III. THE TRI-RELATIVE INDICATION 

Is the expression that the thing, class, or family is taken not 
alone, hut in a comparison with as many as two other things, classes, 
or families, which it excels in whatever is mentioned ; as, this is the 
highest tree of the four, that is the smallest school of the three, these 
are the best men of the seven. (Tri, from trias, three together.) 

SUBDIVISION OF ADJECTIVES, &C 

Adjectives, sub-adjectives, Udverbs, and sub-adverbs may be subdi- 
vided into comparable, and incomparable. 

1. The word which by a certain derivative form, or by a new word 
can express a relative proportion, is comparable; as, high, bad; (higher } 
highest; worse, worst.) 

2. The word which cannot by any derivative form, nor by a new 
word express a relative proportion, is incomparable ; as, six, perfect, 
certain, the, that. 

COMPARISON OF AN ADJECTIVE, &C. 

The comparison of an adjective, a sub-adjective, an adverb, and a 
sub-adverb, is the expression of a relative proportion of whatever is 
mentioned by the affixes er, est, st, ss, most, or by substituting a new 
word; as, high, higher, highest; up, upperwzos^; top, topmost; ill, 
worse, worst ; little, less, leask 



7S 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Absolute Indication. 
good 
little 
much 
bad 
evil 
ill 



Bi-relative Indication, 
better 
less 
more 
tvorse 
worse 
worse 



Tri-relative Indication. 
best 
least 
most 
worst 
worst 
worst 



A few of the Adjectives loliich cannot he Compared. 



supreme 

direct 

conical 

endles8 

boundless 

universal 

faithless 

three 

extreme 



chief 

perfect 

certain 

omniscient 

omnipotent 

omnipresent 

graceless 

leather 

true 



principal 

all-wise 

ceaseless 

round 

square 

perpendicular 

six 

silver 

golden 



Absolute Indication. 
Hind 

Fore 



Adjectives rarely Compared. 

Bi-relative Indication. Tri-relative Indication. 



In 



hinder 
formei 



Inner 



Out 


outer, or utter 


U P 


upper 


Under 





Mid, Middle 





head 





top 






f hindermost 
\ hindmost 
( foremost 
\ first 
( innermost 
\ inmost 
r outmost 
utmost 
outermost 
uttermost 
f upmost 
\ uppermost 
undermost 
( midmost 
\ middlemost 
headmost 
topmost 

Rules. — 1. When the word comprises hut one syllable, it is gen- 
erally compared by adding er, andestf; as, great, greater, greatest- 
Broad, broader, broadest 

2. When the word comprises hut two syllables, and terminates in 
y, or mute e, it is generally compared by er, and est; as Handy, 
handier, handiest; Able, abler, ablest 

These adjectives may receive the subs, more, and most, instead of 
er, and est; as, more handy, most handy; more able, most able. 

They may also take the subs, less, and least ; as, less handy, least 
handy ', less able ; least able. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



79 



Remarks. — When the adjective has more than one syllable, the indications 
are generally made by the subs ; as, more, or most, less, or least, righteous. 

Dissyllables ending in y, change y into i, before er, and est ; as, happy, 
happier, happiest. 

But if a vowel precedes, y is not changed into i, before er, and est ; as, 
gay, gayer, gayest. 

When the word ends with a single consonant which is preceded by a single 
vowel, the consonant is doubled before er, and est ; as, big, bigger, biggest. 

The indications of some words are made by affixing most to the radical state ; 
as, upper, uppermost 

Compare the following Words. 



soft 


farthest 


most 


much 


little 


bad 


first 


hard 


bad 


former 


white 


we 


much 


ill 


good 


many 


worst 


worst 


well 


later 


sooner 


hard 


most 


late 


far 


near 


soft 


last 


less 


last 


less 


red 


next 


least 


less 


best 


much 


foremost 


long 


soon 


least 


nearer 


better 


out 


in 


least 


farther 


ill 


head 


forth 


nearer 


near 


less 


best 


top 



1. Absolute, long, 

2. Bi-relative, longer, - 

3. Tri-relative, longest, - 

1. Absolute, short, 

2. Bi-relative, shorter, - 

3. Tri-relative, shortestf,- 



Eemarks. — There are many properties which, from their nature, are inca- 
pable of increase, or diminution ; as, perfection, universality, straightness, &c. 
The words denoting these, have no indications ; as, perfect, extreme. 

Lines may be divided into relative, and irrelative. 

3. a 1. 

Shortest long. 

2. b 2. 
Shorter longer. 



3. c. 3. 



Short 



longest. 



Now, if a should be taken as an irrelative line, it could neither be a short 
line, nor a long one. As a relative line, however, a is not only a short line ; 
but it is the shortest line. And not only is a the shortest line ; but it is a long 
line ! What is it which makes a a short line, and even the shortest line ? Is 
it not its ratio to be? Could a be denominated the shortest, if it was alone f 
"It could not ; for it would then be denominated a line merely." And what 
is it which gives c the character of short ? Is it not its ratio to b ? You will 
observe, too, that c is not only a short line,, but that it is also a long line ! 



80 ETYMOLOGY. 

Nor is this all ; for c is not only a long line ; but it is the longest line. These 
lines are relative lines ; and they acquire their respective distinctive charac- 
ters from their respective relative bearings upon each other. Hence, the same 
line is both long, and short ; and, what is still more curious, the same line is 
both the shorter, and the longer line, as is seen in b. Now, a taken by itself, 
can be called neither a long line, nor a short line ; yet a, taken as a relative 
line, may not only become a long line, and a short line, but the shortest, or 
l the longest line. 

It may be well to remark again, that lines in general, may be divided into 
relative, and irrelative. A relative line is one which in some respect or other, 
is affected by a relative bearing which it has upon another line. An irrelative 
line is one which has no relative bearing on any other line, and which conse- 
quently can never be affected by any relation to another line. 

The words which are relative in their application, maybe compared; as, 
high, low, little, much. But those which axe irrelative in their applica- 
tion, cannot be compared; as, perfect, straight, supreme, universal, under, into, 
six, one, wooden, as, the, and, nor, &c. 

I will briefly comment upon one, or two of these words. Let me take high 
from the first class, and wooden from the second. 

1. High. — Of two situations, one may be higher than the other ; and of 
three, or more, one may be the highest. Then, again, in the case of the two 
only, one must be less high than the other ; and in the case of the three, or 
more, one must be the least high. High, then, is a relative word. That is, it 
is a word whose application with respect to amount may be under the influ- 
ence of a relative bearing which one thing may have on another. 

2. Wooden. — Of two things which are wooden, one cannot be more wooden 
than the other. Wooden is irrelative in its application. It is idle to compare 
two wooden dishes, to ascertain whether one is more wooden, or less wooden 
than the other. The word, wooden, is not elastic, so to speak, that it can be 
extended, and contracted like the word, higher. And the reason why it is not, 
is found in the want of any occasion on which it becomes necessary to enlarge, 
and diminish the meaning of this adjective. 

All adjectives which denote a fixed, a definite amount, or quantity, are irrel- 
ative. Hence, one, two, three, four, five, six, perfect, square, straight, supreme, 
certain, sure, &c, are all irrelative. Two can be made to mean neither any 
more, nor way fewer than two units. 

Perfect signifies a state of excellence which excludes all defect. To no 
other state can perfect be applied. Perfection, then, is a state, a condition, 
which is irrelative. That is, the perfection of a thing cannot be increased, and 
diminished by any relative bearing of two perfections. One perfection cannot 
be greater than another perfection, any more than one dish can not be more 
wooden than another. Perfection is a thing which must be taken, not with 
another perfection, but alone, as independent, as irrelative. 

You may hold up two colours, say two reds, to see which is the deeper of 
the two. So, also, you may hold up two sticks, to see which of the two is 
the longer. But you cannot hold up two perfections together to ascertain 
which of the two is the greater. Each perfection must be taken alone, by 
itself. In other words, each perfection must be taken as irrelative. 

A mile is a great distance when connected by comparison with an inch. But 
when the mile is absolved, loosed, released, or set/ree from, and independent of, 
the inch, it is not a great distance. That is, when a mile is taken as so 
much irrelative distance, (distance set free from all other distance,) it is not 
a great distance. 



ETYMOLOGY. 81 

One mile, when connected by comparison with a hundred miles, is a very 
short distance But, when the one mile is absolved, set free from the hun- 
dred miles, it is not a very short distance. 

PROVING RULES. 

Rule I. — The trunk word, or the trunk word combination that 
will answer the question which is formed by placing the inceptive 
verb, or the solo verb, if there is no inceptive one, immediately after 
who, or what, is nominative; as, Moses did smite the rock. Who 
did? Moses. 

Moses smote the rock. Who smote? Moses. 

Caution 1. — Be careful to use but two words in forming this question. 

Caution 2. — Be particularly careful to understand the proposition, that you 
may be able to put a question which the certain trunk word, or the certain 
trunk word combination which you wish to prove, will answer. 

Rule II. — The trunk word, as well as the trunk word combina- 
tion which will answer the question formed by placing the nomina- 
tive trunk word, or the nominative trunk word combination immedi- 
ately before the verb series in the section, and whom, or what 
immediately after it, is objective; as, Moses did smite the rock. 
Moses did smite what ? *°Rock. 

Caution 1. — Be careful to prove, at least mentally, the nominative trunk 
word by Rule I. before you even attempt to prove your objective one by 
Rule II. 

Caution 2. — Be particular to ascertain how many trunk words there are in 
your section; for, if your section is of the trunk order, or a sentensic one of 
the branch order, and has but one trunk word, it follows that this one is nom- 
inative. But, if your section is of the trunk order, or a sentensic one of the 
branch order, and has two trunk words, it follows that one trunk word is nom- 
inative, and the other objective. 

Caution 3. — Be particular to put a question which the trunk word, or the 
trunk word combination that you wish to prove, will answer ; for instance, 
you wish to prove apples in the following section : Apples John picked. 

Who picked ? Apples. 

This is nonsense, for this makes the apples pick ! 

Who picked? John. 

This answer is not nonsense ; but as you do not wish to prove the Word, 
John, you have not put the proper question. Put the question which the 
trunk word that you wish to prove, will answer. You desire to prove the word, 
apples, not the word, John; hence you should put the following question 
which is dictated by the sense of the section. 

John picked what ? Apples. 

Rule III. — Every trunk word, as well as every trunk word com- 
bination in the insentensic section, or in the half section, is objective; 
as, John went (to Boston') (to see them.) (Boston, them.) 

4 * 



82 ETYMOLOGY. 

Questions. — How is the question formed, which is intended to aid in prov- 
ing the trunk word, and the trunk word combination to be nominative? 
2. How is the question to be formed, which is to aid in proving that one of the 
two trunk words of the section, is objective? 3. Is the trunk word in the in- 
sentensic section, and in the half section always objective ? 4. Does the phrase, 
trunk word, include the idea of a trunk word combination ? 'Ans. Whenever 
the phrase, trunk word, is used, without the phrase, trunk word combination, 
the phrase trunk word combination, is included in the phrase, trunk word. 
5. What is the object of said, in the following ? He said "they will reverence 
my son." 6. What is the object of have, in the following? Have you " to pay 
the note immediately ?" 7. What is the object of desires, in the following ? 
Henry desires il to see the sun." 8. What is the object of had, in the follow- 
ing ? John had his arm shot off. 9. What is the nominative of is, in the follow- 
ing? Thou shalt love the Lord, is the first commandment. 10. What is the 
nominative of was, in the following ? To see the sun was pleasant. 

Rule IV. — Every interjection is objective. 

Rule V. — Every trunh word, except the pronouns one, others, and 
interjections, with which the will not make sense, is of the pronoun 
denomination; as, the him, the her } the he, the she, the it, th.e whom, 
the thy. 

Rule VI. — The branch word which when used with I, Thou, He, 
or We, has the same rank which it holds in the section where it 
stands, and will aid one of these nominative pronouns to form one of 
the five sentensic dictions, is of the verb denomination ; as, I am, 
thou art, he is, we are. 

i , ? 

, Thou , 1 

He , ? 

We , ? 

Rule VII. — The insentensic branch word which has the same 
sense relation before the section, they are there, which it has in the 
section where it stands, is of the conjunction denomination ; as, But 
they are there. 

Rule VIII. — The insentensic branch word which has the same 
constructive relation before them, which it holds in the section where 
it stands, is of the preposition denomination ; as, with them. 

Rule IX. — The insentensic branch word which has the same con- 
structive relation before thing, things, or Adams, which it holds in 
the section where it stands, and which can be applied to thing, things, 
as nominative as well as objective nouns, is of the adjective denomi- 
nation ', as, these things are not those things. Those things are not 
these things. Miss Adams saw Mrs. Adams. 

Nominative. Objective. 

, thing is , thing. 

, things are , things. 

, Adams saw , Adams. 



ETYMOLOGY. 83 

Rule X. — The insentensic branch word which has the same con- 
structive relation before high, strong, black, redder, man's, or men's, 
which it holds in the section where it stands, is of the sub-adjective 
denomination ; as, too high, very strong, coal black, much redder, 
this man's, these men's. 

Kule XI. — The insentensic branch word which has the same con- 
structive relation when used with fly, look, live, was, or spoken, which 
it holds in the section where it stands, is of the adverb denomina- 
tion ; as, there was, live well, fly up, look quickly, look here, spoken 
of, was not, fly fast, fly slowly. 



Rule I. 



THE PROVING RULES IN SKELETON FORM. 

(What ? 



| Who 
Note. — Place the inceptive, or the solo verb on the dash. 



„.{ 



-= = ±L'r 

Note. — Put the nominative trunk word of the section on the first dash, and 
the verb series on the second dash. 

Rule IV. — , they are there. 

Rule V. — , them 

Rule VI. — , high , strong , black , redder , 
■ r , man's. , men's 

Rule VII. — , was , live , look , fly f spoken ? 

Rule VIII. 



Nominative. Objective 

thing, , thing, 

things , things. 

Adams , Adams. 



Directions. — 1. When the branch word has different denominational char- 
acters, the pupil should be required to portray each in proof. 

2. The section " they are there," may be considered a trunk, or a sentensic 
branch, as occasion may require. "When the pupil cannot appropriate the 
conjunction to this section without supplying a super section, he may form a 
trunk which will enable him to appropriate the conjunction to the section, 
they are there. For instance, than seems to require a trunk to give it a clear 
conjunction character : 

than they are there. 
[I am no more there] {than they are there.) 

The tense may also be changed to make the conjunction fit this — 
they were there. 



84 ETYMOLOGY. 

Etymology may be divided into Class, and Sense. 

1. Class Etymology respects the means by which words are ren- 
dered members of different classes, or denominations of words. 

2. Sense Etymology respects the variations by which words are 
translated, not from one class to another, but from one sense to another. 

I. CLASS ETYMOLOGY. 

1. Nouns. — 1. Words are rendered nouns by their nature; as Moses, 
rock, rod. 

2. Words are rendered nouns by their application ; as, All that relates to 
man, is matter of progression. [^4ZZ*.] 

3. Words are rendered nouns by their accent; as reb f -el, con f -vict. 

4. Words are rendered nouns by some new form; as, dote, dotage; free, 
freedom; good, goodness. 

6. Many verbs are rendered nouns by the following noun makers : 

Noun Makers. — age, ance, ancy, ence, ency, ant, ent, ment, ure, ation, ion, 
ition, sion, Hon, er, or, ce, se, ship, ing, red, ture, th, ist. 

Verbs. — dote, repent, occupy, depend, depend, defend, preside, manage, 
expose, simplify, depress, add, admit, produce, make, create, defend, expend, 
court, begin, hate, mix, grow, copy. 

Nouns. — dotage repentance, occupancy, dependence, dependency, defendant, 
president, management, exposure, simplification, depression, addition, admis- 
sion, production, maker, creator, defence, expense, courtsAip, beginning 
hatred", mixture, grow^A, copyist 

6. Some verbs are rendered nouns by accent merely ; as, 
Verbs. — con-vict / , pres-ent', reb-el'. 

Nouns. — con'vict, present, reVel. 

7. Many adjectives are rendered nouns by the following noun makers; 
Noun Makers. — dom, hood, ness, ity, ty, ship, ce, cy, t, th, ard, ist. 
Adjectives. — free, false, good, real, real, hard, fragrant, fluent, high, 

strong, drunk, universal. 

Nouns. — freeoJom, falseAooo*, goodness, reality, realty, hardship, fragrance 
fluency, heigbi, streng^, drunkard, universalis*. 

II. Adverbs. — Some adverbs are rendered verbs by application, without 
any change of form ; as, 

Adverbs. — 1. He went forward; 2. Take off your hat ; 3. Get up. 

Verbs. — 1. They forward goods ; 2. Off with his head ; 3. Up, let us be off. 

Some words are rendered verbs by the following prefix verb makers : 

Verb Makers. — en, in, trans, re. 

Words. — dear, form, late, mind. 

Verbs. — endear, inform, translate, remind. 

III. Prepositions. — 1. Certain branch words are rendered prepositions by 
their nature ; as, of, to, in, on. {Absolute division.) 

2. By application in forming a section ; as. All went but him ; All went pas 
the house ; All came except John. {Application division.) 
* AU is naturally an adjective. 



ETYMOLOGY. 85 

IV. Adjectives. — 1. Certain nouns are rendered adjectives by dropping 
the noun affix ; as, Freedom, free ; Blackness, black ; Redness, red ; Accuracy, 
accurate. (Suffix adjectives.) 

2. Certain nouns, certain pronouns, certain prepositions, certain adverbs, and 
certain verbs in the tenseless Be, and in the tenseless Be and Have form, are 
rendered adjectives by application ; as Leather shoe, Brewster Jones, Hat 
case, She bear, Under officers, The above facts, The then bailiff, Writing table, 
Written letters. (Application adjectives.) 

3. Certain nouns are rendered adjectives by particular suffixes ; as, Mode, 
modal; Irony, iromcaZ; Adamant, adamantfme „• John, John's; Bliss, Bliss'; 
Holiness, Holiness' ; He his ; Me, my, mine ; You, your, yours. 

4. Certain branch words are rendered adjectives by their nature ; as, The 
book, Any person, Every man, Each girl, All children. [These are absolute 
adjectives.] 

Adjective Makers. — al, ical, ine, ous, eous, ious, y, ly, ish,ful, ie, He, able, 
ible, an, en, ed, some, ese, less, 's, ', 

Nouns. — mode, irony, adamant, mountain, right, space, bone, man, slave, 
skill, hero, infant, reason, convert, Rome, brass, saint, burden, Portugal, 
sun, lady, ladies. 

Adjectives. — modal, ironical, adamantme, mountainous, righteows, spactows, 
bony, manZy, sl&vish, skilful, heroic, infants, reasonao^e, convertible, Roman, 
brazm, sainted, burdensome, Portuguese, sunZess, lady's, ladies'. 

Adjective Makers. — y, ine; y, ine ; o, rs; is, s, s, ir, irs ; se, sesoever. 

Pronouns.— me, thou, us, he, her, it, they, who. 

Adjectives. — my, myne; thy, thyne; our, ours; his, hers, its, thee'r, theirs; 
whose, whosesoever. 

It will be admitted by all who examine the subject thoroughly, that their, 
and theirs are adjectives. [See Exegesis, on these words.] 

V. Adverbs. — Words are rendered adverbs in three ways : 

1. By the nature of the word; as, too, indeed. (Absolute adverb.) 

2. By the application of the word in forming a section ; as, Henry behaves 
very ill; He is spoken of. (Application adverbs.) 

3. By some change in the form of the word ; as, Accurate, accurately ; 
Just, justZy; Way, away; Head, ahead. (Suffix, and Prefix adverbs.) 

1. Some adjectives are rendered adverbs by ly ; as, 

Adverb Maker. — ly. mly, ly,s 

Adjectives. — virtuous, brave, second. 
Adverbs. — virtuously, bravely, secondly. 

2. Some nouns, some verbs, and some adjectives are rendered adverbs by 
incorporating a as a prefix ; as, 

Adverb Makers.— a, ly. 

Examples op Illustration. — side, aside, man, manZy, go, ago, miss, 
amiss, right, aright, wry, awry. 

3. Many words are rendered adverbs by their nature ; as, here, there, 
where, &c. 

These are rarely removed from the adverb denomination, their native place, 
except when they are spoken of, when they are thrown into the noun denomi- 
nation ; as, here is an adverb. 



86 ETYMOLOGY. 

VI. Conjunctions. — 1. Certain branch words are rendered conjunctions by 
the nature of the word ; as, because, therefore, than, nathless, and, or. 

2. Certain branch words are rendered conjunctions by application of the 
word to a cordictive mono ; as, I cannot return except he sends his servant ; I 
shall go provided it does not rain; It is a fine day — hence we must go there. 

[The teacher should put many questions to the pupil, on this Lesson, 
which he must construct without any aid from the author.] 

II. SENSE ETYMOLOGY, 
i". The sense of Nouns, modified by different forms. 

Noun Modifiers. — ade, age, ate, dom, head, hood, rick, ship, wick, ietn, y, 
cry, ler, erel, kin, let, ling, ock, ist, holi, fore, man, stales, trades. 

Examples. — lemon, parent, tetrarch, king, God, priest, bishop, friend, 
bail, music, cutler, smith, jewel, cock, lamb, river, duck, hill, machine, day, 
runner, slaughter, man, man. 

Illustration. — lemonade, parentage, tetrarchaie, kingdom, Godhead, priest- 
hood, bishopn'c&, friendship, bailiivick, musician, cutlery, smithery, jeweller, 
cockered, lamb&m, rivulet, duckling, hillock, machinist, holiday, forerunner, 
manslaughter, statesman, tradesman. 

Note.— The pupil may acquire the import of every prefix, arid affix which modify the sense 
of words by ascertaining the meaning of the words without these modifiers, and the meaning 
of the words with them. Lemon, lemonade. 

Remarks. — I. The following noun modifiers are generally incorporated 
with nouns — some, however, may be affixed to adjectives. But whether af- 
fixed to adjectives, verbs, or nouns, they are employed to change the applica- 
tion of the word from the thing which pertains to the person, to the person 
himself: ard, ce, er, ian, ist, or, man. 

Drunk, drunkard; drunkenness, drunkard; bail, bailee; teach, teacher; 
physic, physician ; botany, botanist ; act, actor ; create, creator ; trade, 
tradesman. 

Remarks. — II. The following noun modifiers are incorporated with nouns 
to throw them from the person, to something which pertains to him. 

Noun Modifiers. — age, ate, dize, dom, hood,, rick, ry, ship, wick, y. 

Illustration. — Patron, patronage ; tetrarch, tetrarchate ; merchant, mer- 
chandize; king, kingdom; priest, priesthood; bishop, bishopries ; smith, 
smithery; slave, slavery; steward, stewardship; bailiff, bailiwick; cutler, 
cutlery; grocer, grocery. 

II. Sense modification in verbs is a change which is produced in the sense 
of the verbs by incorporating the following syllables, with verbs ; 

Verb Modifiers. — a, be, dis, for, fore, mis, over, out, re, un, under, up, 
with. 

Examples. — vow, spread, like, bear, tell, give, see, live, call, do, went, 
set, stand. 

Illustration. — avow, Jespread, dislike, forbear, foretell, misgive, oversee, 
outlive, recall, undo, underwent, upset, withstand. 

VII. Adjectives. — The sense modification of an adjective, is a change pro- 
duced in the meaning of the word by incorporating some additional syllable. 

Adjective Modifiers. — ish, dis, in, un, we. 



ETYMOLOGY. 87 

Examples. — red, honourable, sensible, deniable, genedictive. 

Illustration. — reddish, dishonourable, ^sensible, wndeniable, wegenedic- 
tive. 

Questions. — 1. What is class etymology ? 2. In how many ways are 
words rendered nouns ? 3. Are words ever rendered nouns by certain/orms 9 
A . Can you give three words which are rendered nouns by their forms 9 5. 
van you repeat all the noun makers which are affixed to verbs, to render verbs 
nouns 9 6. What is dote 9 7. What is dotage 9 8. What is depend 9 9. In- 
to what does ency change depend? 10. What is said of all in the foot note ? 
11. Are there any verbs which are rendered nouns by mere accent? [Give 
some instances.] 12. From what English word is copyist derived? 13. 
From what verb is the noun, growth, made ? 14. Is the word, copy, a verb ? 
15. Can the verb, copy, be rendered a noun 9 16. By what means can you 
give the verb, copy, the noun character ? [By application ; as, He wants a 
copy of " The First Round in the Ladder oe Education." 17. What is 
convict in the following sentence ? — 

The jury will convict him; and he will then be a convict. 
18. By what affix is free rendered a noun? 19. Whatis/ree? 20. By 
what affix is the adjective, hard, rendered a noun ? 

II. SENSE ETYMOLOGY. 

21. What is the meaning of ade, age, ate, dom, head, hood, rick, ship, wick, 
ian, y, ery, ler, erel, kin, let, ling, ock, ist, holi, fore, man, states, trade 9 22. 
What is the meaning of the word, lemon 9 23. What is the meaning of lemon- 
ade 9 24. What is the import of the affix, ade, in lemonade 9 25. What is 
the meaning of age, in parentage 9 26. In what particular, do the words, 
parent, and parentage, differ in sense ? 27. What is the effect of the affix, y, 
in cutler?/ 9 28. What is the meaning of kin, in lamb&m 9 29. What is the 
import of the affix, ling, in duckling 9 30. What effect is produced by the 
prefix, states, in statesman ? 

[The teacher, should drill the pupils in this way till they can give the 
meaning of the various sense modifiers. 

Application of Rule IX. to high, strong, black, redder, &c. 

Nominative. Objective. 

1. High things are high things 

2. A strong thing is a strong thing. 

3. A black thing is a black thing. 

4. Redder things are redder things. 

5. Man's things are man's things. 

6. Jane Adams is Jane Adams. 

7. Men's things are men's things. 

8. Strange things are strange things. 

9. Running things are running things. 

10. Flying things are flying things. 

11. Sharp things are sharp things. 

12. Mrs. Adams saw Mrs. Adams. 

13. Silk things are silk things. 

14. Leather things are leather things. 

15. Gold things are gold things. 

16. John Adams saw John Adams. 

17. Mr. Adams is Mr. Adams. 

18. An Adams is an Adams. 



88 ETYMOLOGY. 

Specimen of proving: the words, too, here, there, but, if, than, unless, 
when, where, in, up, indeed, among, at, near, high, surely, Jane, Miss, Mr., an, 
his, as, for. 

1. Too high — too, a subadjective. Rule 10. 

2. Look here — here, an adverb. Rule 11. 

3. Look there — there, an adverb. Rule 11. 

4. But they are there — but, a conjunction. Rule 7. 

5. ijf they are there — if, a conjunction. Rule 7. 

6. Than they are there — than, a conjunction. Rule 7. 

[I am no more there] [than they are there.) 

7. Unless they are there — unless, a conjunction. Rule 7. 

8. Fly when — when, an adverb. Rule 11. 

9. Look in — in, an adverb. Rule 11. 

10. Look wAere — where, an adverb. i2«Ze 11. 

11. Fly wp — up, an adverb. -RwZe 11. 

12. Was indeed, — indeed, an adverb. i?wfo 11. 

13. Among them — among, a preposition. i?wZe 8. 

14. At them — a£, a preposition. Rule 8. 

15. Fly near — near, an adverb. Rule 11. 

16. Fly A?#A — high, an adverb. ifaZe 11. 

17. Surely was — surely, an adverb. .KwZe 11. 

Nominative. Objective. 

18. iVear things are near things — near, an adjective. Rule 9. 

19. High things are high things — high, an adjective. Rule 9. 

20. Jane Adams is Jane Adams — Jane, an adjective. Rule 9. 

21. Miss Adams saw Miss Adams — Miss, an adjective. Rule 9. 

22. Miss Man's hat \iMiss Man's hat — Miss, a subadjective. ifaZe 10. 

23. .3/r. Adams is Mr. Adams — Mr., an adjective. Rule 10. 

24. Mr. Man's hat is Mr. Man's hat — Mr., a subadjective. Rule 10. 

25. An Adams is an Adams — an, an adjective. Rule 9. 

26. An Adams's hat is an Adams's hat — an, a subadjective. Rule 10. 

27. His things are his things — his, an adjective. Rule 9. 

28. His man's hat is his man's hat — his, a subadjective. Rule 10. 

29. As they are there — as, a conjunction. Rule 7. 

30. Fly as — as, an adverb. .KwZe 11. 

[Fly as] (he approaches.) Rule 11 
That is, fly when he approaches. 

31. ^is high — as, a subadjective. Rule 10. 

(£o high.) 

32. For they are there— /or, a conjunction. Rule 7. 

(Because they are there.) 

33. .For them — for, a preposition. ^wZe 8. 

34. Spoken /or— /or, an adverb. Rule 11. 

Proving Exercises under the Preceding Rules. 

Correctly, softly, prudently, well, accordingly, badly, and, though, 
although, nearer, verily, sure, indeed, positively, no, not, nay, never, 
white, farther, many, near, why, rather, sooner, chief, especially, so, 
as, equally, thus, like, otherwise, else, differently, unlike, most, 
nearly, partially, partly, scarcely, hardly, sparingly, scantily, less. 



ETYMOLOGY. 89 



IMPORTANT FACTS. 

The following facts are stated to aid the learner who has a know- 
ledge of the First Book, in acquiring a knowledge of the old theory of 
English Grammar, or of the part of the rational system, which is 
offered as a substitute for the old theory. And they who understand 
the First Book, and wish to make their knowledge of it useful in 
studying the common English Grammars, or the part of the rational 
system, which is designed as a substitute for these Grammars, should 
give undivided attention to these facts. 

From the character of the section as sentensic, or as insentensic, 
learners can readily decide to what particular denomination each word 
in the section, belongs. Hence those who desire to learn the old 
theory of English Grammar, or the pcurt of the rational system, which 
is a substitute for the old theory, should always carry the character 
of the section in their minds. 

As the words that belong to insentensic sections, are more easily 
analyzed than those which constitute the sentensic ones, the learner 
should make himself master of the analysis of the parts of the insen- 
tensic, before he gives much attention to the analysis of those of the 
sentensic section. 

WORDS OF DIFFERENT DENOMINATIONS MAY ENTER INTO THE SAME 

SECTION. 

John, of what materials is a shoe made ? 

A shoe is made of leather, or cloth, and thread. 

John, every thing which is made, is formed out of certain materi- 
als. Bread is made out of flour, salt, water, and yeast. 

Now, as a shoe is constructed out of certain fixed materials, so is a 
section formed out of particular kinds of words. Sections are divided 
into 

1. Trunk Sections, and 

2. Branch Sections [Book I. p. 54.] 
And branch sections are subdivided into 

1. Sentensic, and 
2 Insentensic. 

The insentensic branch section may be composed of one noun, one 
pronoun, one preposition, one, or more adjectives, one, or more sub- 
adjectives, and one interjection. 

In constructing, then, an insentensic branch section, a preposition, 
an adjective, a subadjective, and a noun, or a pronoun, and interjec- 
tion, may be employed. Words of these five denominations may 
enter into an insentensic branch section : no others can. But, 



90 ETYMOLOGY. 

although words from these five denominations, may "be used in form- 
ing an insentensic branch section, yet an insentensic branch section 
may be formed out of a noun, & pronoun, or an interjection only ; as, 
(Sarah,) come thou to me ; It is (she,) (alas /) 

And there are thousands of insentensic branch sections which are 
made of a preposition, and a noun, or of a preposition, and a pro- 
noun ; as, With boohs; Of me; To Mm. 

You see, then, that an insentensic branch section may be constructed 
wholly out of one kind of material, wholly out of two, or wholly out 
of three, and that it never can comprise more than Jive kinds of ma- 
terials 

The Construction of an Insentensic Branch Section. 

1. If a preposition is used, it should commence the section; as, Of 
John's brother's new book. 

2. If a subadjective is employed, it should be placed immediately 
before its super ; as, Of John's brother's new book. 

3. If adjectives are used, they should be placed between the^>re- 
position, and the noun, or pronoun ; as, Of John's brother's new 
book. 

4. In general, the noun, or pronoun should be placed last; as, Of 
John's brother's new book. 

N. B. No verb, no adverb, no subadverb, and no conjunction can 
enter into an insentensic branch section. 

Note I. — The half section may become the insentensic noun of 

the preposition, for ; as, What went ye out for to see. [For to see what 
thing went ye out ?] 

Note II. — The interjection always constitutes an insentensic branch section ; 
as (" Alas!) for it was borrowed." 

Note III. — An insentensic branch section is rarely broken : the state of 
an insentensic branch section is generally unbroken ; as, of John's brother's 
new book. 

Note IV. —An insentensic branch section rarely has the plus adaption. 

SENTENSIC BRANCH SECTION. 

The fewest kinds of materials of which a sentensic branch section 
may be made, are two; viz., a verb, and a nomimtiv noun, or pronoun; 
as, John went when (James returned.) 

The greatest number of kinds of materials which can enter into a 
sentensic branch section, is seven ; viz., conjunction, adverb, sub- 
adverb, adjective, subadjective, a nominative noun, or pronoun, and 
an objective noun, or pronoun. 

OBSERVATIONS. 
1 The notation of the sentensic branch section is often implenary. 



ETYMOLOGY. 91 

This arises from a frequent omission of the nominative noun, or pro- 
noun, of the verb, and frequently from an omission of the objective 
noun, or pronoun. If any one of these parts is omitted, the notation 
of the section is implenary; as, ["There was a man] ( , , sent) 
(from God.") 

2. The omission of a conjunction, a subadjective, a subadverb, an 
adjective, or an adverb, is rare. But, even where the omission of 
one, or more of these parts, happens, the omission does not, strictly 
speaking, render the notation of the section implenary. 

THE TRUNK SECTION. 

The trunk, like the sentensic branch section, may be wholly com- 
posed of two kinds of words ; and, like this branch section, it may 
comprise as many as seven. 

1. The hinds of material out of which trunk sections, and sentensic 

branch sections may be constructed. 
1. Conjunctions, 2. Verbs, 3. Adverbs, 4. Suhadverbs, 5. Adjec- 
tives, 6. SubadjectiveSi 1 . Nouns, trunk word I combinations, and Pro- 
nouns. 

2. The fewest number of these seven kinds, two, viz. 

1. A Nominative noun, or pronoun, and 2. a Verb. 

3. The kinds of material out of which the insentensic branch section 

may be formed. 
1. Prepositions, 2. Adjectives, 3. Subadjectives, 4. Objective nouns, 
pronouns, interjections, and objective trunk word combinations. 

Fewest kinds, one, viz., objective noun, pronoun, or an interjection. 
[The pupil should be questioned on this Lesson with great care.] 

Remarks. — He that can divide a sentence into sections, subdivide the sec- 
tions into trunk, sentensic branch sections, and insentensic branch sections, ren- 
der all the implenary sections plenary, and give the different sorts of "words 
of which each kind of section may be formed, has nearly accomplished the 
task of learning English grammar. But, he that has not acquired this capa- 
city, must acquire it, or remain ignorant of this science. If any one pre- 
sumes that a mere capacity to analyze words as nouns, and verbs, pronouns, and 
prepositions, adjectives, conjunctions, and adverbs, constitutes him a gramma- 
rian, I can inform him that his presumption is fallacious. Nothing but a 
thorough knowledge of Book I., will enable a person to learn grammar. 



J * ETYMOLOGY. 

INSENTENSIC SECTIONS. 

Fact I. — Nouns, pronouns, prepositions, adjectives, subadjectives, 
as they are called in the rational system, hut adverbs in the old, and 
interjections only, enter into insentensic sections. 

Fact II. — All nouns, all pronouns, and all interjections, which be- 
long to insentensic sections, are objective. 

Fact III. — The insentensic section may consist of a noun, a pro- 
noun, or an interjection only; as, (Ah) (John,) [have you returned?] 
[It is] {they.) 

Fact IV. — In general, the jirst word in an insentensic section 
which comprises two, or more words, is a preposition ; as, [They 
went] (to the mount) (of Olives.) 

Fact V. — In general, the noun, or the pronoun is the last word 
in the insentensic section; as, [They went] (unto the mount) of 
( Olives.) 

Fact VI. — Every word of the jirst rank, which comes "between 
the preposition, and the noun, or the pronoun, in the insentensic sec- 
tion, is an adjective, and makes sense with the noun, or the pronoun 
of the section; as, [They went] (unto the mount.) 

Fact VII. — Every word of the second, third, fourth, or fifth rank, 
which comes after the preposition, is a subadjective by the rational, and 
an adverb by the old system ; as, John went (with this boy's mother's 
father's brother's son.) (Of very much too cold weather.) 

1. By the rational, cold is an adjective, making sense with weather ; too, a 
subadjective, making sense with cold ; much is a subadjective, making sense 
with too, and very is a subadjective, making sense with much. 

2. By the old, very is an adverb, belonging to much; much is an adverb, 
belonging to too, and too is an adverb, belonging to the adjective, cold. 

1. By the rational, this is a subadjective, making sense with boy's; 
boy's is a subadjective, making sense with mother's; mother's is a 
subadjective, making sense with father's; and father's is a subadjec- 
tive, making sense with the adjective, brother's. 

2. By the old, — this is an adjective belonging to boy's; boy's is a 
common noun in the possessive case, and is governed by mother's; 
mother's is a common noun, in the possessive ^case, and is governed by 
father's ; father's is a common noun in the possessive case, and is 
governed by brother's ; and brother's is a common noun in the pos- 
sessive case, and is governed by the noun, son. 

Fact VIII. — All words which are nouns in the possessive case by 
the old theory, are adjectives, or subadjectives by the rational system. 



ETYMOLOGY. 93 

Fact IX. — Conjunctions, verbs, and adverbs never enter into in- 
sentensic sections. 

Fact X. — Nominative nouns, and nominative pronouns never 
enter into insentensic sections. 

Fact XI.- — Verbs may enter into compound insentensic sections, 
as, The boy was told to get the horse (for us to go) to the city. (See 
Book I.) 

Fact XII.— Objective nouns, and objective pronouns are nouns and 
pronouns in the objective case by the old theory. 

SENTENSIC SECTIONS. 

Fact I. — Nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, conjunctions, adverbs, 
and subadverbs only, belong to sentensie sections. 

Fact II. — Nouns, pronouns, prepositions, adjectives, and interjec- 
lions only, belong to insentensic sections. 

Fact III. — The word, adjective, as used in Facts I., and II., 
comprehends all principal, and all sw&adjectives ; and the word ad- 
verb, as used in Fact I., comprehends all principal, and all swoad- 
verbs. 

Fact IV. — Every sentensie section must have one nominative trunk 
word. 

Fact V. — No sentensie section can have more than one nomina- 
tive trunk word which may be a noun, or a pronoun as occasion re- 
quires. 

Fact VI. — Every sentensie section must have one verb which ex- 
'erts its sentensie power. 

Fact VII. — No verb series can comprise more than four verbs ; 
as, John shall have been punished. 

Fact VIII. — The verb series of the half section can have but 
three verbs ; as, To have been punished. 

Fact IX. — In deciding whether a verb in one part of the com- 
pound section, is inceptive, medial, final, or solo, no attention should 
be given to any verb in the other part of this section, 

Fact X. — Verbs which are separated by the intervention of other 
words, belong to the same series; as, John will certainly return. 
[Will return.] 

Fact XI. — A section which has but one trunk word, can have no 
objective verb. 



94 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Fact XII. — In general, where there is a verb series, the inceptive 
verb only, exerts its tense power; as, John will return, [will] 

Fact XIII. — In general, the solo verb exerts its tense power ; as, 
John returned. 

Fact XIV. — Where the inceptive verb has the derivative, ing 
form, the time is decided by the entire verh series ; as, The General 
being slain, the army was routed. The General having been slain, 
the army was routed. 

[Here, the verb series, being slain, and having been slain, decides 
the time to be prior passed.] 

Fact XY. — Although in general, the solo verb exerts its tense 
power; yet where the solo verb ends in the derivative, ing, the time 
is imputed from the verb in the- section that is super to the one to 
which the solo verb in ing, belongs ; as, (Washington being wise) [we 
gave heed] (to his advice.) (John being sick) [we sent] (for medical 
aid.) (James being here) [we can now see him.] 

Fact XYI. — No section can have more than one objective verb. 

Fact XVII. — A section may have four nominative verbs. 

Fact XVIII. — All the verbs in the half section make sense with 
the names of the foreign theme of the half section. 

Fact XIX. — All the verbs in a simple section make sense with 
the nominative noun, or with the nominative pronoun of the section. 

Fact XX. — The solo, and the final verbs are the only ones which 
can be objective. 

Fact XXI. — Incentives, and medials in the half section, are nom- 
inative verbs when they make sense with the nominative noun, or 
with the nominative pronoun of the whole part of the compound sec- 
tion. 

Fact XXII. — When a verb in the half section makes sense with 
the objective noun, or with the objective pronoun of the whole part of 
the compound section, it is objective ; as, I told him to go. 

Fact XXIII — When a verb in the half section makes sense with 
both objective trunk words of the compound section, it is objective ; 
as I told him to get the horse. He allowed me to pick the apples. 

Fact XXIV. — In a series of two, or more verbs, only the incep- 
tive exerts its sentensic power; as, John will return, [will.'] 

Fact XXV. — Though the half section may have an objective trunk 
word, it can not have a nominative trunk word. 



ETYMOLOGY. 95 

Fact XXVI. — None" but the solo, and final verbs can have the 
regular passed tense form, [ed.~] 

Fact XXVII. — All inceptives, and all medials have the irregular 
passed tense form, [is was, not is, isectf.] 

Fact XXVIII. — By the old theory, the nominative trunk word is 
the nominative case to the verb. 

, Fact XXIX. — The branch word of the first rank, which in any 
one of its forms will aid I, thou, he, or we, in forming a sentensic dic- 
tion, is a verb ; as, John has been punished. I have, Be thou, he 
punished. 

Fact XXX. — By the old theory, the objective verb is a transitive 
verb. 

Fact XXXI. — When the half section bears a trunk word relation 
to a verb, and aids the verb in forming the sentensic diction, the half 
Section is a nominative trunk word combination ; as, ( To see the sun) 
is pleasant. (Seepage 20.) 

Fact XXXII. — When the half section bears a trunk word rela- 
tion to the verb, and does not aid the verb in forming the sentensic 
diction, the half section is an objective trunk word combination ; as, 
[John likes (to see the sun.)] (Seepage 20.) 

Fact XXXIII. — When a compound insentensic section bears a 
trunk word relation to a verb, and aids the verb in forming the sen- 
tensic diction, it is a nominative trunk word combination; as, [(for a 
man to be good) is] (for him to be happy.) 

Fact XXXIV. — When the half section is a nominative, or an-o6- 
iective trunk word combination, adjectives may make sense with it; 
as, To see the sun is pleasant. 

Fact XXXV. — Adjectives often make sense with the name of the 
foreign theme of the half section ; as, For a man to be good is for 
him to be happy. 

Fact XXXVI. — When the verb in the half section makes sense 
with the objective noun, or pronoun which denotes the foreign theme 
of the half section, it is objective', as, For a man to be good is for 
him to be happy. 

Fact XXXVII. — No simple insentensic section bears a trunk 
word relation to any branch word. 

Fact XXXVIII.— When a simple sentensic section bears a trunk 
word relation to a verb, and aids ' the verb in forming the sentensic 
diction, it is a nominative trunk word combination ; as, Thou shall 
love the Lord is a part of the first commandment. 



90 ETYMOLOGY. 

Fact XXXIX. — When a simple sentensic section bears a trunk 
word relation to a verb, and does not aid the verb in forming the sen- 
tensic diction, it is an objective trunk word combination; as, [He said 
" Where art thou?" ] {Seepage 40.) 

PAUSING. 

Parsing is the giving of all the Grammatical properties, and facts 
of a word, not given in Scanning. 

A SPECIMEN OP PARSING. 

[I am] (he.) 

[2 A nominative trunk word, in the nominative form, relating to, and is 

used for my name to secure the formative indication,* aiding the 
verb, am, to form the sentensic diction of the section, of the pro- 
noun denomination, indefective class, rational application, formative 
indication, uni numerdiction, plussed by the new word, we, and 
masculin genediction, rendered masculin by imputation. 
am,"] a branch word of the verb denomination, exerting its sentensic power 

in aiding the nominative pronoun, /, to form the sentensic diction of 
the section, and its tense power in marking present time, solo posi- 
tion, of the irregular passed tense form, present tense, nominative 
class, making sense with /. J 

[he.) 

(he.) an objective trunk word, in the mominative form, relating to, and 

is used for the noun, man, to secure a precision, of the pronoun 
denomination, indefective class, ambi application, subjective indica- 
tion, uni numerdiction, plussed by the new word, they, and masculin 
genediction. 

2. [We saw him] (at church.) 

\we a nominative trunk word, nominative form, relating to, and is used for 

our names, to secure the formative indication, aiding the verb, saw, 
to form the sentensic diction of the section, of the pronoun denomina- 
tion, indefective class, rational application, formative indication, plus 
numerdiction, unified by the new word, I, and ambi genediction, 
rendered ambi by imputation. | 

taw, a branch word of the verb denomination, exerting its sentensic power 

in aiding the nominative pronoun, we to form the sentensic diction 

* When the word is employed for no purpose but to mention a being or thing, as the subjee*' 
of attention, the word is of the subjective, or self subject indication ; as Moses smote the rock. 

But, where the word is used, not so much to direct attention to the being as to represent him 
as the former, or the auditor of the sentence, the word denoting the being, is of the formative, 
or auditive indication ; as, Master, I have brought my son unto thee. {Master, I.) 

All the things mentioned by the use of branch words are subjects of attention, of thought. 
For instance, smote, in the preceding instance, is used to direct attention to the act of smiting 
the rock by Moses. Why, then, is not smote of the subjective indication ? There is no necessity 
for this distinction among branch words, because no syntax rules can be founded upon it. The 
distinction which is made by the four indications, among trunk words, is the basis of highly 
important syntax rules; hence the formative, the auditive, the self subject, as well as the subjec- 
tive indications are very important means in correcting bad English. But these distinctions 
among branch words, however philosophic in themselves, would be perfectly useless in 
grammar.. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



97 



of the section, and its tense power in marking passed time, solo 
position, irregular passed tense form, passed tense, objective class, 
making sense with we, and him. 
him,'] an objective trunk word, objective form, relating to, and is used for 

the noun, John, to secure a precision, of the pronoun denomina- 
tion, indefective class, ambi application, subjective indication, unt 
numerdiction, plussed by the new word, them, and musculin gene- 
diction. 

(at the church.) 

(at, a branch word pf the preposition denomination, absolute division, 

making sense with church. 

the, a branch word of the adjective denomination, absolute division, in- 

comparable subdivision, making sense with church. 

church,) an objective trunk word of the noun denomination, class application, 
subjective indication, uni numerdiction, plussed by es, and neo gene- 
diction. 

3. Moses did smite the hard rock. 

Moses, a nominative trunk word of the noun denomination, aiding the verb 
did, to form the sentensic diction of the section, individual appli- 
cation, subjective indication, uni numerdiction, plussed by es, and 
masculin genediction. 

did, a branch word of the verb denomination, exerting its sentensic 

power in aiding the nominative noun, Moses, to form the sentensic 
diction of the section, and its tense power in marking passed time, 
inceptive position, of the irregular passed tense form, passed tense, 
nominative class, making sense with Moses. 

smite, a branch word of the verb denomination, suspending its sentensic, 

and its tense power, final position, of the irregular passed tense form, 
no tense, objective class, making sense with Moses, and rock. 

the, a branch word of the adjective denomination, absolute division, 

incomparable subdivision, making sense with rock. 

hard, a branch word of the adjective denomination, abfix division, com- 

parable subdivision, absolute indication, making sense with rock. 
1. Absolute indication, hard', birelative indication harder; trirela- 
tive indication, hardest. 

rock, an objective trunk word of the noun denomination, class application, 

subjective indication, uni numerdiction, plussed by s, and neo gene- 
diction. 

(with his most sacred rod.) 

with, a branch word of the preposition denomination, absolute division, 

making sense with rod. 

his, a branch word of the adjective denomination, suffix division, (made 

from he) incomparable subdivision, making sense with rod. 

most, a branch word of the subadjective denomination, application division, 

comparable subdivision, much, more, most, trirelative indication, 
making sense with sacred. 

tacred, a branch word of the adjective denomination, abfix division, incom- 
parable subdivision, making sense with rod. (from sacredwew.) 
5 



98 



ETYMOLOGY. 



rod, an objective trunk word of the noun denomination, class application, 

subjective indication, uni numerdiction, plussed by s, and neo gene- 
diction. 

4. [To see the sun is pleasant.'] 

[To see the sun is a nominative trunk word half section, aiding the verb, is] to 
form the sentensic diction of the section, individual application, 
subjective indication, uni numerdiction, without a jpluss numerdic- 
tion, and neo genediction. 

is, a branch word of the verb denomination, exerting its sentensic power 

in aiding the nominative trunk word half section, to see the sun, to 
form the sentensic diction of the section, and its tense power in 
marking present time, solo position, irregular passed tense form, 
present tense, nominative class, making sense with the nominative 
trunk word half section, to see the sun. 

pleasant,'] a branch word of the adjective denomination, abfix division, incom- 
parable subdivision, making sense with the nominative trunk word 
half section, "to see the sun." 

Note. — From a sligM glance, it may be thought that pleasant is comparable. This adjective, 
however, can not be compared ; we do not say pleasant, pleasanter, pleasantest. The idea is 
comparable, but the word is not. To compare the ideas, we use more, and most; as, more pleas- 
ant, most pleasant. The ideas expressed by adjectives, are often comparable while the adjectives 
themselves are incomparable. In many instances, however, neither the idea, nor the word is 
comparable ; as, perfect bliss. Parsing demands thought. Think clearly ; and you will then 
parse accurately. 

5. (Master,) [I have brought' my son] (unto thee ; ) who hath a 

dumb spirit.) 

(Master.) 

{Master,) an objective trunk word of the noun denomination, class applica- 
tion, auditive indication, uni numerdiction plussed by s, and mas- 
culin genediction. ,*- 

[I have brought my son.] 

[/ a nominative trunk word, in the nominative form, relating to, and is 

used for the noun, father, to secure the formative indication, aiding 
the verb, have, to form the sentensic diction of the section, of the 
pronoun denomination, indefective class, rational application, forma- 
tive indication, uni numerdiction, plussed by the new word, we, 
and masculin genediction, rendered masculin by imputation. 

have, a branch word of the verb denomination, exerting its sentensic 

power in aiding the nominative pronoun, /, to form the sentensic 
diction of the section, and its tense power in marking middle present 
time, inceptive position, irregular passed tense form, middle present 
tense, nominative class, making sense with /. 

brought, a branch word of the verb denomination, suspending its . sentensic, 
and its tense power, final position, of the irregular passed tense 
form, no tense, objective class, making sense with /, and son. 

my, a branch word of the adjective denomination, suffix division, incom- 

parable subdivision, making sense with son. 

son,"] an objective trunk word of the noun denomination, class application, 

subjective indication, uni numerdiction, plussed by s, and masculin 
genediction. 



ETYMOLOGY. 99 

(unto thee) 

(unto* - a branch word of the preposition denomination, absolute division, 
making sense with thee. 

thee,) an objective trunk word, in the objective form, relating to, and is 
used for the noun, Master, to secure the set/subject indication, of 
the pronoun denomination, indefective class, rational application, 
selfsubject indication, uni numerdiction, plussed by the new word, 
you, and masculin genediction, rendered masculin by imputation. 

(who hath a dumb spirit.) 

(who, a nominative trunk word, in the nominative form, relating to, and is 
used for, the noun, son, to secure a precision, aiding the verb, hath, 
to form the sentensic diction of the section, of the pronoun denomi- 
nation, objective class, rational application, subjective indication, 
uni numerdiction, plussed by imputation,* and masculin genedic- 
tion, rendered masculin by imputation. 

hath, a branch word of the verb denomination, exerting its sentensic 

power in aiding the nominative pronoun, who, to form the sentensic 
diction of the section, and its tense power in making present time, 
solo position, of the irregular passed tense form, present tense, ob- 
jective class, making sense with who, and spirit. 
a branch word of the adjective denomination, absolute division, in- 
comparable subdivision, making sense with spirit. 

dumb, a branch word of the adjective denomination, abjix division, compa- 
~ rable subdivision, absolute indication, making sense with spirit. 
Dumb, dumber, dumbest. 

spirit,) an objective trunk word of the noun denomination, class application, 
subjective indication, uni numerdiction, plussed by s, and masculin 
genediction. 

6. [I am] (his brother.) 

[I, a nominative trunk word, nominative form, relating to, and is used 

for my name, to secure the formative indication, aiding the verb, 
am, to form the sentensic diction of the section, of the pronoun de- 
nomination, indefective class, rational application, formative indica- 
tion, uni numerdiction, plussed by the new word, we, and mascu- 
lin genediction, rendered masculin by imputation. 

am,'] a branch word of the verb denomination, exerting its sentensic 

power in aiding the nominative pronoun, /, to form the sentensic dic- 
tion of the section, and its tense power in marking present time, 
solo position, irregular passed tense form, present tense, nominative 
class, making sense with /, 

(his, a branch word of the adjective denomination, suffix division, incom- 

parable subdivision, making sense with brother. 

brother,) an objective trunk word of the noun denomination, class application, 
subjective indication, uni numerdiction, plussed by s, and masculin 
genediction. 

Note.— It may be thought by some, as Tand brother mean the. same person that both words 
should be of the same indication. 

* All defective pronouns are plussed by imputation. 



100 ETYMOLOGY. 

7. [I am] (his brother.) 

Here /, and brother mean the same person ; hence it may be said with per- 
fect propriety that the word, brother, denotes the former of the sentence. 
The question, then, is, is the word brother, of the formative indication? To 
settle this point nothing is necessary but to determine whether the word, 
brother, in, and of itself, indicates that the person, alluded to, is the former 
of the sentence. 

" I am his brother." 

The idea that the brother is the former of this sentence, is derived, not from 
the word, brother, but from the word, /. It is known that the word, /, shows 
that the person to whom this pronoun relates, is the former of the sentence — 
and this fact, coupled with the thing affirmed in the preposition, namely, 
that I am brother, suggests the idea that the brother is the former of the sen- 
tence. The word, brother, then, in this and in all similar instances, is of the 
subjective indication. Be particular to understand this, namely, that a word 
is not of the formative indication because it means him who is the former of 
the sentence, but because it indicates, or points out, in, and of itself, which 
person is the former of the sentence. A word may denote the former without 
having any power to indicate that he whom it points out, is the former ; as, 
" I am his brother," I, Paul, &c. 

No one will contend that the word, brother, does not denote the former ; 
also that the word, Paul, does not denote the former. But, then, as these 
nouns have no power to indicate that the persons to whom these words refer, 
are the formers of the sentences, it is clear that these nouns have no forma" 
five indication whatever. 

1. The pronoun that indicates what person is constituted the former of the 
sentence, is of the formative indication; as, "Master,/ have brought unto 
thee my son." (/.) 

2. The noun that indicates what person is constituted the auditor of the 
sentence, is of the auditive indication ; as, "Master, I have brought unto thee 
my son." (Master.) 

3. The pronoun which indicates that the auditive functionary has become 
a subject by turning his attention from the sentence, to himself, is of the self" 
subject indication ; as, Master, I have brought my son unto thee. (Thee.) 

4. The noun, or the pronoun which indicates that the being, or thing which 
the noun, or the pronoun denotes, bears no functional relation to the sentence, 
but is mentioned as a mere subject of thought, is of the subjective indication ; 
as, "Master, I have brought unto thee, my son." (Son.) 

PREPARED EXERCISES. 

These exercises should be parsed exactly according to the specimen 
given under pages 96 97 98 99 and 100 . 

[In general, the unexpressed technicals which the pupil should employ in 
parsing the word in the margin opposite the commas, are represented by 
commas. Hence the pupil should apply as many technicals as there are 
commas. But, whether these exercises are as clearly presented as are those 
which are prepared by the means of letters, I will not attempt to decide. The 
commas represent the number of technicals rather than the exact words which 
the pupil should use. But while the commas afford little, or no clue to the 



ETYMOLOGY. 



101 



exact technicals which the pupil should employ, the expressed technicals that 
come after the commas, render much aid to him in deciding the exact word 
which he should speak at each comma. For instance, if the expressed techni- 
cal is form, the unexpressed ones are, irregular, passed, tense. Unless, however, 
the pupil makes himself perfectly familiar with the preceding specimen of 
parsing, he cannot be benefited by the indications of the expressed technicals. 
In short, whether the learner is first drilled in these exercises, or in those 
prepared by the use of letters, and parsed by the aid of " The system of 
forms," he should study the parsing specimen most thoroughly. Should the 
teacher prefer to drill his pupils first in the exercises prepared by letters, 
he will find it a wise step to drill them in the comma exercises as soon as his 
pupils shall have exhausted all the lettered ones.] 



PREPARED EXERCISES. 
1. [The wages (of sin) are] (death.) 



word of the 



denomination 



subdivision, 



sense 



sin,) an 



{The, a , 

division, 
wages. 

wages t a ». * word of , , denomination, 

aiding , verb, are, , , the sentensic diction of 

, section, , application, , indi- 

cation, , numerdiction, , , , , 

numerdiction, and , genediction. 

(of, a » word of , , denomination, , 

division, , sense , sin. 

, , word of the , denomination, 

application, , indication, , 

numerdiction, , by , and , gene- 

diction. 

are,~\ a , word of , , denomination , 

, , power in , , , 

noun, wages, to , , , , of- , 

section, and , , power in marking , 

time, , position, of , , , 

form, , tense, , class , sense 

, wages. 

(death.) an , , word of , , denomina- 

tion, , application, , indication, , 

numerdiction, , by , and , gen- 

ediction. 

2. [After (these things , , ) Jesus walked] (in Galilee;) 
(for he would not walk) (in Jewry) (because the Jews sought to 
kill him.) 

[After Jesus walked] 

{After, , word of , , denomination, , 

division, , subdivision, , sense , 

walked. 

(these , , word of , , denomination, , 

5* 






102 ETYMOLOGY 

division , subdivision, , sense , 

things. 

things, a , , word, , , , denomi- 

nation, , , verb, had, understood, to , 

, , diction of , section, , appli- 

cation, , indication, , numerdiction, , 

by , omission of s, and , genediction. 

had, , , word of , verb denomination, , 

, , power in , , , noun, things, f 

to form the sentensic diction of , 

and , tense power in , prior passed time, 

position, , , , form, , , tense, 

nominative class, , sense , 

things. 

happened,) , ^ , word , , , denomi- 

nation, suspending its , and , , power> 

, position, , , , form, , 

tense, , class , sense , things. 

Jesus, a , , word , , , denom, , , verb, walked, to 

, , , , diction of , section, , 

application, , indication, , numerdiction, 

, by es, and , genediction. 

walked,] , , word of , , denomination, exerting 

, , power in aiding , , 

noun, , to form , , - diction , 

, section, and , , power , , 

, time , position, , , , 

form, , tense, nominative class , sense , 

Jesus. 

(in Galilee.) 

(in, , , word , , , denomination, , 

division, , sense , Galilee. 

Galilee.) , , , word , , , denomination, 
, application, , indication, , numer- 
diction, , by , and , genediction. 

(for he would not walk) 

(for, a , word , , , denomination, 

application division, making , , , 
, section. 

he, , , , word . , form, , to, 
and is used for , , Jesus to , , 
precision, , , , would, to , , , 
diction , , section, of , , denomi- 
nation, , class, , application, , 
indication, , numerdiction, , . by , 
, word, they and , genediction. 

would, , , word , , , denomi- 
nation, exerting , , power in , , , 
, , he, , % , , diction of , 



ETYMOLOGY. 103 

section, and , , power in marking , 

time, , position, , - ' , , form , 

tense, nominative class , sense , . he. 

not, , , word , , , denomination, 

, division, , subdivision, , sense ., 

- would. 

walk,) , , word , , , denomination, 

suspending its , and , ; power, , 

position, , , , form, , tense, , 

■class, , sense , he. 

(in, , , word , , denomination, 

, division, , sense , Jewry. 

Jewry,) t , , word , , , denomi- 

nation, , ' application, , indication, , 

" numerdiction, , by ies, and , gene- 

" diction. 

{because, , , word . , , , denomination, 

, division, , sense , , , 

section. 

the, , , , of , , denomination, , 

division, , subdivision, , sense , 

Jews. 

Jews, , , , word of , , denomination, 

, , verb, sought, to form , , 

diction , , section, , application, , 

, , numerdiction, , by , 

omission of s, and , genediction. 

sought, t , word , ,' , denomination, 

exerting , , power , , , , 

noun, Jews, to , , , diction , , 

section, and , , power , , , 

time, , position, , , , form r 

tense objective class, making sense with the nominative noun, Jews, 
and with the objective trunk word half section, to kill him. 

to kill him,) an objective trunk word half section, , application, 

, indication, , numerdiction, without a plus nu- 

merdiction, and , genediction. 

(to kill Mm.') 

(to, , , word , , adverb denomination, , 

division, , subdivision, making sense with kill. 

kill, , , word , , , denomination, 

suspending its sentensic power, but exerting its tense power in mark- 
ing present time, solo position, regular passed tense form, present 
tense, objective class, making sense with Jews, and him. 

him,) , , , word in the objective form, relating to, and 

is used for, the noun, Jesus, to secure a precision of the pronoun 
denomination, indefective class, ambi application, subjective indica- 
tion, uni numerdiction, plussed by the new word, them, and mascu- 
lin genediction 



104 ETYMOLOGY. 

3. [I took it to be] (him.) 

[J, , , , word , form, relating to, and ia 
used for, my name to , the , indication, 
aiding , verb, took, to , , , dic- 
tion of , section, of , , denomination, 
, class, , application, , indication, , nu- 
merdiction, plussed by , , word, we, and , 
genediction, rendered , by imputation. 

Note.— My name is the noun, Brown, and of the masculin genediction. Hence the pronoun, 
7, is of the masculin genediction. Was a female to parse the pronoun, I, and say that it relates 
to, and is used for her name, it would he rendered feminin genediction hy imputation. 

took, , , word , , , denomination, 

, , , power in , , , pro- 

noun, /, to , , , diction of , 

section, and , , power in , , 

time, , position, , , , form, 

, tense, objective class, , sense with /, and it. 

it, , , , word , form, relating to, and is 

used for the noun, actor, to secure a precision of the pronoun de- 
nomination, indefective class, ambi application, subjective indication, 
uni numerdiction, plussed by the new word, them, and masculin 
genediction, rendered masculin by imputation. 

to, , , word , , , denomination, 

application division, incomparable subdivision, making sense with 
be. 

be,~\ , , word of the , denomination, suspend- 

ing its sentensic, but exerting its tense power in marking present 
time, solo position, , , , form, present tense, 

objective class, making sense with it. 

(for, understood, is a branch word of the preposition denomination, absolute 
division, making sense with him. 

him,) an , , , objective form, relating to, and is 

used for, the noun, actor, supposed, to secure, a precision, of the pro- 
noun denomination, indefective class, ambi application, subjective in- 
dication, uni numerdiction, plussed by the new word, them, and 
masculin genediction. 

Note. — That for is understood hefore him, will he ohvious to all who give the suhject, a 
moment's careful reflection. 

1. " I took it for good money." 

2. "He was taken up for dead." 

3. I take you to be a gentleman. 

Why is for omitted in the third instance ? 

The insertion of to be requires the omission of for. 

The sense is the same with for, which is without for. But when the half section to be, and 
for, are hoth expressed, the ear is offended— and to please this organ, for, or to be is generally 
omitted. 

1. " I take you for a gentleman." 

2. " I take you to be a gentleman." 

1. " I take you for to be a gentleman." 

2. " I take you for a gentleman to be." 



ETYMOLOGY. 105 

The insertion of every implied word, subtracts from the music of the sentence. For in- 
stance, 

1. He was offered [with a dollar) for his knife. 

2. He got (for me) some paper. 

1. "He was offered ( , a dollar) for his knife." 

2. " He got ( , me) some paper." 

4. [But we preach Christ crucified.] 

But, , , word of , , denomination, abso- 

lute division, making sense with , , section. 

we, , , , word , form, relating to, and is 

used for, the noun, apostles, to secure the formative indication, aid- 
ing the verb, preach, to form the sentensic diction of the section, of 
the pronoun denomination, indefective class, rational application, 
formative indication, plus numerdiction, unified by the new word i", 
and masculin genediction, rendered masculin by imputation. 

preach, a branch word of the verb denomination, exerting its sentensic power 
in aiding the nominative pronoun, we, to form the sentensic diction 
of the section, and its tense power in marking present time, solo po- 
sition, irregular passed tense form, present tense, objective class, 
making sense with we, and the objective trunk word phrase, "Christ 
crucified." 

Christ crucified, an objective trunk word phrase, individual application, subjec- 
tive indication, uni numerdiction, without a, plus numerdiction, and 
neo genediction. 

5. [I must work the works (of him) (that sent me) while] it is day. 

[/, a , , word , form, relating to, and is 

used for the noun, Christ, to secure the formative indication, aid- 
ing the verb, must, to form the sentensic diction of the section, in- 
defective class, rational application, formative indication, uni numer- 
diction, plussed by the new word, we, and masculin genediction, ren- 
dered masculin by imputation. 

must, a branch word of the verb denomination, exerting its sentensic power 

in aiding the nominative pronoun, /, to form the sentensic diction of 
the section, and its tense power in marking present time, inceptive 
position, , , , form, present tense, nomina- 

tive class, making sense with 2". 

work, a , , of , , denomination, sus- 

pending its sentensic, and its tense power, final position, , 

, , form, no tense, objective class, making sense with I, 

and works. 

the, a , word of the , denomination, absolute di- 

vision, incomparable subdivision, making sense with works. 

works, an objective trunk word of the noun denomination, class application, 
subjective indication, plus numerdiction, unified by the omission of 
s, and neo genediction. 

6. [Go ahead.] 

go, a branch word of the verb denomination, exerting its sentensic power 

in aiding the nominative pronoun thou, understood, to form the sen- 



10(3 ETYMOLOGY. 

teniae diction of the section, and its tense power in marking present 
time, solo position, irregular passed tense form, present tense, nomi- 
native class, making sense with thou, understood 

thou, understood, is a nominative trunk word, nominative form, relating to, 
and is used for, the objective, auditive noun, John, supposed, to se- 
cure the selfsubject indication, aiding the verb, go, to form the sen- 
tensic diction of the section, of the pronoun denomination, indefec- 
tive class, rational application, selfsubject indication, uni numerdic- 
tion, plussed by the new word, ye, and masculin genediction, ren- 
dered masculin by imputation. 

ahead,'] a branch word of the adverb denomination, prefix division, incompa- 
rable subdivision, making sense with go, (a is prefixed to the noun, 
head.) 

PARSING EXERCISES. 

Note. — These exercises should be parsed after the pupil shall have disposed 
of all those which follow them prepared for parsing by the help of letters, and 
commas. 

DIRECTIONS. 

1. First, sectionize each sentence in the exercises. 

2. Secondly, distinguish the different sections by their diction. 

3. Thirdly, supply each.word which is understood. 

4. Fourthly, scan each word in every section. 

5. Fifthly, prove every word in each section. 

6. Sixthly, parse each word of every section. 

Note. — In these exercises, the same word may be of different denomina- 
tions. To this fact, the pupil should pay undivided attention. 

1. [This man is abject.] 

2. [They must abject the abject members] (from the society.) 

(Abject as a verb is nearly obsolete.) 

3. My brother was then absent. 

4. [It would be well] (for all the adject members to absent them- 
selves) (from the company.) 

5. [This gentleman has made an abstract] (of the trial.) 

6. [Men abstract wine] (from the grape.) 

7. [Beauty is] (an abstract term), (and , expresses an abstract 
idea.) 

8. [This pupil cannot abstract abstract mathematics] (from mixed 
mathematics.) 

9. [Abstraction is] (the operation) (of the mind), (upon abstract 
ideas.) 

10. (Upon which syllable) [shall I lay the accent ?] 

11. [You should accent the last syllable.] 

12. [Accented syllables are] (those , ) (which are em- 
phatic.) 



ETYMOLOGY. 107 

The pupil may here give the class etymology of accent. 

1. Accent', uate, s, st, th, ed } ing. a verb. 

2. Adcent, nation, ing. ... a noun. 

3. Accentual, . :. . an adjective. 

13. [The affix (of a word) is] (the affix part) (which we affix) (in 
class etymology.) 

14. [Mexico must augment her army before] (she retakes Texas.) 

15. [Streams will augment] (by rain.) 

16. [Good is made a noun] (by the augment) ( , , ) (ness.) 

•) 



17. [Goodness is made an adjective"] (by , abstracting) ( , 
the augment) ( , , (ness.) Good. 

18. [His strength is augmentable.] 

19. [The recent augmentation (of his family) consists] (of a lovely 
son.) 

20. [There is an augmentation court (in England) to augment the 
revenues] (of the crown.) 

21. [The court is] (an augmentative tribunal.) 

22. [An augmentation court is] (an augmenter) (and , acts 
augmentatively) (upon the revenue) (of the crown.) 

23. [The augmenting (of the revenues) of the crown,) (by the 
augmentation court), was not popular.] 

24. [Our friends made an august display] ( , last August.) 

25. [A bombardment is] (an attack) (with bombs.) 

26. [To bombard, is] ( , . , , to attack , , ) (with 
bombs.) 

27. [These soldiers will begin to bomb the enemy.] 

28. [A bomb is] (a large shell) (of cast iron.) 

29. [The drums will bomb.] 

30. [The enemy stood the bombard] (with a singular degree) (of 
courage.) 

31. [The bombarding (of the town) was] (an act) (of sheer cruel- 
ty.) 

32. [A bombardier is] (one) (who attends) (to , loading) ( , 
mortars,) (and ,,)(,, firing) ( , mortars.) 

33. [You must book these articles] in the new book), (to Mr. Book 
worm.) 

34. [Have they a bomb chest] (on board) (of their bomb ketch?) 

35. ["'I was so much] (in his books*) ( , , # ,) (that) (at his 
decease,) (he left ( , me) his lamp.") — Addison. 

36. [He is] (a book binder.) 

37. [Book binding is not] (book keeping.) 

(* Books, here means favour;.) 



108 ' ETYMOLOGY. 

• 

38. This gentleman is bookful — (hence he must have been book- 
ish.) 

39. [The gentleman asserts] (without book.)* 

40. [I will paper the room] (with this paper substance) (which (I 
verily believe) is paper.) 

41. [A paper mill is] (an engine) (for , making) ( , paper) 
(from paper rags.) 

42. [I must have a drill plough] — (for I wish to drill my seed) (in 
drills.) 

43. [Men (who do not drink , ) do not require drink money,] 
( , that) (they may buy drink.) 

44. [We doubt] (whether you have any doubt) (which renders 
your course doubtful.) 

45. [For I have come] {for this book) for my brother) (by whom) 
(it was called for) {for several days) ( , , past.) 

46. What went ye out {for to-see-) 

[He said u they-will-reverence-my-son.""] 

He said what ? " they will reverence my son." This section, then, is taken 
as one thing, as one long word, — as the objective trunk word section of said. 

1. [" What went ye out] {for to see.") 

2. [To-see-our-friends is pleasing.'] 

Here " to see" is the objective noun of for. And, " To see our friends" is 
the nominative noun of is. 

" John had Ms-arm-shot-off." 
(t We preach Christ-crucified." 

He said where art thou f 
where art thou. 

1. [He said where art thou?] 

An objective trunk word section, " where art thou P" 

2. [He said they will reverence my son"] 

An objective trunk word section, " they will reverence my son." 
■ 3. [His disciples asked (of him) who did sin ?] 
An objective trunk word section, u who did sin ?" 
4 [Jesus saith (to Simon Peter) lovest thou me f 
An objective trunk word section, " lovest thou me f" 

5. [And Peter said Lord, thou knowest all things.] 

An objective trunk word section, (thou knowest all things."') 

6. [But now ye seek to kill me.] 

An objective trunk word half section, (to kill me.) 

* That is, without authority. 



ETYMOLOGY. 109 

7. ["They said, Abraham is (our father").'] 

An objective trunk word section, (Abraham is) (our father.) 

8. [Jesus said (if ye were) (Abraham's children,) (ye would do 
the works) (of Abraham). ~\ 

An objective trunk word section, ("If ye were) (Abraham's chil- 
dren^) (ye would do the works) (of Abraham.) 

9. ["His disciples said, who-then-can-be-saved f"\ 

10. [" Thou-shalt-love-the-Lord" is] (the first commandment.) 

11. [The first commandment is] (" Thou shalt love the Lord.") 

12. [The first commandment is] (that) ("Thou shalt love the 
Lord.") 

13. For- God to-do-wrong is impossible.] 

14. \It is impossible] for God-to-do-wrong.) 

15. [Have yaw read the- Sonship-qf- Jesus- Christ?] 

The titles of books, &c, which comprise two, or more words, are 
nouns ; as, " Brown's Remains," " Report of Sunday Schools" 
u Edwards on Redemption" " Sonship of Jesus Christ." 

Let the pupil supply every implied word as he reads his section. 

1. [The power (of speech) is] (a faculty) ( , , peculiar) 
(to man j) (and , was bestowed) (on him) (by his beneficent 
Creator) (for the greatest , j) (and , , , ) 
( , , most excellent uses ;) (but (alas !) how often do we 
pervert it) (to the worst , )-(°f purposes !) 

2. [The rapid extension (of the Christian religion,) (through the 
principal nations) (of the world,) may be considered] (as a direct 
proof) (of the reality) (of the miracles) (of our Saviour ;) (and , 
, * ,)(,,, ,) (of the miraculous powers) 
(with which) (the apostles) ( , themselves) were endowed.) 

3. [The most powerful motives call] (on us) (for those efforts) 
(which our common country demands) (of all her children.) 

4. [The eyes (of a fool) are] (in the ends) (of the earth.) 

5. (In the beginning) [was the word j] (and the word was) (with 
God ;) (and the word was) (Grod.) 

6. [A certain man planted a vineyard,] (and , r set a hedge) 
(about it,) (and , digged a place) (for the wine vat,) (and 
, built a tower,) (and , let it out) (to husbandmen,) 
(and , went) (into a far country.) 

7. [Nature has so exquisitely modelled the human feature] ) , 
} , , ) (that) (they are capable) (of the expression) (of 
the most secret emotions) (of the soul.) 

8. [Now, when (he had ended all his sayings) (in the audience) 
(of the people,) he entered] (into Capernaum.) 



110 ETYMOLOGY. 

.9. [And a certain centurion's servant (who was dear)- (unto him,) 
was sick,] (and , , ready to die.) 

10. ( Verily, verily, [I say] (unto you) he (that entereth not) (by 
the door,) (into the sheepfold,) (but , climbeth up) ( > , 
some other way,) ( , , ) (the same , ) is) (a 
thief,) (and , , ) (a robber.) 

11. [Give , ( , me) such , ] (as I pur- 
chased; ) (and , , as much , ) (as I purchased;) 
(and I shall be satisfied.) 

12. [Do , the work] (in such a manner) (as will please 
him j) (and he will give ( , you) as many dollars) (as will 
pay you well) (for your trouble.) 

13. [Such , (as I have,) I will give] (unto thee.) 

14. [No such thing was ever declared] (as he seems to recollect.) 

15. ( , Much) (as man desires) [a little will answer.] 

16. [As (Jesus passed by,) he saw a man] (that was blind) (from 
his birth.) 

17. [As long (as I am) (in the world,) I am] (the light) (of the 
world.) 

18. [He was good] (as well as , , rich) 

19. [They came] (as pupils) (to my school.) 

20. [I must not use another's book when] (I have one) of my own.) 

21. [They accommodate one another daily.] 

22. [Give , ( , James) another apple.] 

23. [The interest (of another , ,) is not as dear] (to me) 
(as my own , , .) V 

24. [I claim this one] (for my own , ) — (but another , 
claims it) (as another's , .) 

25. [This day suits my interest ;] (another , . may suit 
another's , better) (than this ,,,,.) 

26. [Any interest (except my own , . ) is another's , .] 

27. [The boy was called] ( , , , ) ( , John.) 

28. [The army is ( , , , ) ( , ten thousand 
men) strong.] 

29. [I have some recollection] ( , that) (his father was) (a judge.) 

30. [The wall is ( , , , ) ( , six feet high.] 

31. [The board is ( , , , ) ( , an inch) thick.] 

32. [The boy is ( , , , ) ( , ten years) old.] 

33. [He counted his army] ( , , , ) ( , 
man) (by man.) J 

34. [Henry rode] ( , , , ) ( , day) (after day.) 

35. [They stood] (,,,)(, one , ) 
(by another , .) 

36. [The children \^re arranged] ( , , , ) ( , 
one , ) (after another , .) 



SYSTEM OF PARSING FORMS. Ill 

DIRECTIONS. 

The period ( . ) over a word signifies pronoun (us.) 



18. The small Italic letter means verb, (a) 

19. The Italic capital means adjective, or sub-adjective 
(A) [See page ] 

20. The Roman capital means adverb, or sub-adverb. 
[See page ] (B) 

21. A, B, C, D, E, F, and G, relate to Adjectives. [P. ] 

22. H, I, J, K, and L, relate to Sub-adjectives. [P. ] 

23. A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, and M, relate to 
adverbs. [P. ] 

24. Q, 0, P, and V, relate to #w5-adverbs. (P. ) 

25. U, and T, relate to prepositions. (P. .) 

26. S, and R relate to Conjunctions. 

Parsing book. 

The pupil should have a Blank book, into which he 
should draw off the Lettered Exercises. When these shall 
have been exhausted, the pupil should place in his Parsing 
Book various kinds of Prose, and Verse, from different wri- 
ters, which he should letter by the aid of the index nouns, 
fee. Having prepared his lesson in this way he should 
Parse it under the direction of his teacher who should be 
careful to require the learner to correct all the errors with 
red ink. 

In this way the pupil learns to spell, to write, to parse, 
and to punctuate at the same time. Besides, this method 
gives the Parsing a durability which enables the pupil to 
examine it months, and years after its date. 

In this state the Parsing can be turned to as a species 
of authority for the Parsing of all dubious analogous con- 
structions. 

The learner, in reviewing his Parsing Book, searches 
a kind of record, which revives his Grammatical Knowledge, 
even without a teacher. 



112 SYSTEM OF PARSING FORMS. 

INDEX NOUNS. 

[n i s u p m] ' 

1. Nominative Moses smote the rock 

|o i s u p m] 

2. Objective the rock was smitten by Moses. 

[o i a u p m] 

3. Objective Wast thou inspired, Moses. 

[o i ap uam] 

4. Objective Preserve your union, Americans. 

[n c s u p m] 

5. Nominative man is mortal. 

[ocsupm] 

6. Objective He saw a man. 

[o c a u p m] 

7. Objective What art thou, man. 

[n c s p u m] 

8. Nominative men are sinful. 

[ocspum] 

9. Objective He spake unto the men. 

[o c a p u m] 

10. Objective Why stand ye idle, men. 

[n cupf] 

11. Nominative The woman is kind. 

[o csupf] 

12. Objective . He was helped by a woman. 

[o c a u p f J 

13. Objective He condemns thee, woman. 

[n c s p u f J 

14. Nominative / All the women were kind. 

[ocspuf] 

15. Objective Be kind to the women. 

[ocapuf] 

16. Objective Who condemns you, women 

[n c s u p mu] 

17. Nominative There was a person. 

[o c s u p mu] 

18. Objective He saw a person. 

[n c s p am] 

19. Nominative There were many people at church 

[ocsp am] 

20. Objective We saw many people. 

[nisupf] 

21. Nominative Sarah laughs. 

[o i s u p f ] 

22. Objective They stood by Sarah 

[o i a u p f ] 

23. Objective Sarah, be good. 

[n c s u p ne] 

24. Nominative Is the book new 



Rule HI. — Every trunk word, as well as every trunk word combination 
in the insentensic section, or in the half section, is objective ; as, John went 
to Boston) (to see them. (Boston, them.) 



SYSTEM OF PARSING FORMS, 



113 



25. Objective 

26. Nominative 

27. Objective 

28. Objective 

29. Objective 

30. Nominative 
13. Nominative 



[o c s u p ne] 
He has a new book 

1 [n c s p u ne] 

His brother's books are here, 
[o c s p u ne] ~ 
He purchased these books. 

[ocsupm] 
He is thy brother. 

[o c s up f ] 
She is thy Sister. 

[nc supm] 
Brother is. 
[n cs u pf] 
Sister is, 



INDEX PE0N0UNS. 



1. Nominative 

2. Objective 

3. Objective 

4. Objective 

5. Nominative 

6. Objective 

7. Nominative 

8. Objective 

9. Objective 

10. Nominative 

11. Objective 



I saw. 


It is I. 


It is we. 


John saw me mysel£ 


thou art. 


It is thou. 


he is. 


It is he. 


Nathaniel taught him. 


It is I who. 


It is I whom. 



114 



SYSTEM OF PARSING FORMS. 



12. Nominative 

13. Objective 

14. Nominative 

15. Objective 

16. Nominative 

17. Objective 

18. Nominative 

19. Objective 

20. Nominative 

21. Objective 

22. Nominative 

23. Objective 

24. Nominative 

25. Objective 

26. Nominative 

27. Objective 

28. Nominative 

29. Objective 

30. Nominative 

31. Objective 

32. Nominative 

33. Objective 

34. Nominative 

35. Nominative 

36. Objective 



It is thou who. 
It is thou ichom. 
It is ye who. 
It is ye whom. 
It is I that saw John. 
It is I that John saw* 
It is thou that sawest John. 
It is thou that John saw. 
It is ye that saw John. 
It is ye that John saw. 
It is he that saw John. 
It is he that John saw 
It is they that saw John. 
It is they that John saw. 
It is he who saw John. 
It is he whom John saw 
It is they who saw John. 
It is they whom John saw. 
It is she who saw John. 
It is she whom John saw. 
It is she that saw John. 
It is she that John saw. 
she saw. 
She saw us that are here. 
She saw thee. 



SYSTEM OF PARSING FOEMS. 



115 



37. Nominative 

38. Objective 

39. Objective 
40 Objective 

41. Nominative 

42. Nominative 

43. Objective 

44. Nominative 

45. Nominative 

46. Objective 

47. Objective 

48. Objective 

49. Nominative . 

50. Objective 

51. Nominative 

52. Objective 

53. Nominative 

54. Objective 

55. Objective 

56. Nominative 

57. Objective 

58. Nominative 

59. Nominative 

60. Objective 

61. Nominative 



that art here. 
They saw us 

that John called. 
They saw you 

that are here* 
we saw you 
that John called. 
ye saw. 
they saw. 
They saw them. 

ye, men. 
thou, hypocrite, 
the people that saw John, 
the people that John saw. 
the person that saw John, 
the person that John saw 
the persons that saw John, 
the persons that John saw. 
the person whom John saw. 
the person who saw John, 
the persons whom John saw 
the persons who saw John, 
the book that is John's* 
the book that John read, 
the books that are John's. 



116 



SYSTEM OP PARSING PORMS. 



62. Objective 

63. Nominative 

64. Objective 

65. Nominative 

66. Objective 

67. Nominative 
88. Objective 

69. Nominative 

70. Objective 



the books that John read. 

the book jwhich is new. 

the book which John read. 

the books which are new. 

the books which John read. 

it is new. 

of it. 
.br 
that John is bad, is certain. 

we know that thou art sick. 



INDEX VERBS 



INCEPTIVE POSITION. 

I. Irregular passed tense form, Present tense, nom. class. 

a 

1. a John can rise early. 

ab 

2. ab John is punished. 

II. Irregular passed tense form, Middle-present ten., nom. class. 

b 

3. b John has walked out 

III. Irregular passed tente form, Passed tense, nom. class. 

c 

4. c John could walk out. 

5. g John was punished. 

IV. Irregular passed tense form, Prior passed tense, nom. 
class. 

d 

6. a* John /lad* walked out. 



SYSTEM OP PARSING FORMS. 117 

V. Irregular passed tense form, Future tense, nom. class. 

e 

7. e John will walk out. 

VI. Irregular passed tense form, Prior future tense, nom 

class. 

/ 

8. f John mZZ have walked out. 

VI. Irregular passed tense form, Prior passed tense, worn, class. 

9. The General being slain, the army was routed. 

rr 

10. The General having b&en slain, the army was routed. 

MEDIAL POSITION. 

VII. Irregular passed tense form, • nom. class. 

9. h John will 6c writing. 

VIII. Irregular passed tense form, Prior future tense, nom 



10. i John will Aave walked. 

FINAL POSITION. 

IX. Regular passed tense form, , nom. class. 

J 

11. j John will be walking. 

X. Irregular passed tense form, , wow. class. 

12. k John will 6e. 

XI. Regular passed tense form, , obj. class. 

13. ac Lest they should trample them. 

XII. If regular passed tense form, , oSy*. class. 

ad 

14. ad Lest they should eat fruit. 

SOLO POSITION. 

Irregular passed tense form, Present tense, nom. class. 

c^f John is in the house. 

Irregular passed tense form, Passed tense, nom. class. 

ah \ 
ah John was in the house. 

XIII* Regular passed tense form, Present tense, nom. class 

15. 2 John walks. 



118 SYSTEM OF PARSING FORMS. 

XIV. Irregular passed tense form, Present tense, worn, class. 

m 

16. m John #oes. 

XV. Regular passed tense form, Passed tense, norm, class. 

n 

17. n John walked. 

XVI. Irregular passed tense form, Passed tense, tiowi. class. 

o 

18. o John ioen£. 

XVII. Regular passed tense form, Present tense, obj. class. 

19. p John Zi/ces fruit. 

XVIII. Irregular passed tense form, Passed tense, o&/. class. 

20. g; John sow me. 

XIX. Irregular passed tense form, Present tense, o2y. class. 

r 

21. r John sees me. 

XX. Regular passed tense form, Passed tense, obj. class. 

s 

22. s John liked fruit. 

VII. Irregular passed tense form, Imputed present tense, 06; 
class. 

23. ff John having a book gets his lessons well. 

VIII. Irregular passed tense form, Imputed passed tense> obj. 
class. 

ZT ff 

24. j/f John having a book, read it with care. 

IX. Irregular passed tense form, Imputed present tense worn, 
class. 

88 

25. ss John being wise, we give heed to his advice. 

X. Irregular passed tense form, Imputed passed tense, nom. 



8S 

26. ss John being wise, we gave heed to his advice. 

XI. Regular passed tense form, Imputed present tense, nom 
class. 

00 

27. 00 John walking to the house, ^ete his gun. 

XII. Irregular passed tense form, Imputed passed tense, worn. 
class. 

00 

28. 00 John <70im? to the house, got his gun. 



SYSTEM OF PARSING FORMS. 119 

HALF SECTION. (Book First p. 60.) 

[The half section is placed within ( ).] 

I. Solo Position. 

XXI. Regular passed tense form Present tense, obj. class. 

t 

1. t John beheld me (to walk.) 

XXII. Irregular passed tense form, Present tense obj. class. 

aa 

2. aa John told her (to 50.) 

XXIII. Regular passed tense form, Present tense, nom. class. 

3. ee I am (to return soon.) 

XXIV. Irregular passed tense foim,Present tense, worn, class. 

*e 

4. ie * I am (to go now.) 

XXV. Regular passed tense form, Present tense, o5/. class. 

. tf 

5. # And they went (to pick fruit.) 

XXVI. Irregular passed tense form, Present tense, ofe/. class. 

6. tv And they went (to eat fruit.) 

XXVII. Regular passed tense form, Present tense, obj. class. 

vv 

7. m> We saw them ( , mow the grass.) 
XXXVIII. Irregular passed tense form, Present tense, obj. 

class. 

u 

8. « They allow us (to eat apples.) 

II. Inceptive Position. 

XXIX. Irregular passed tense form, Present tense, nom. class. 

v 

9. John was (to be punished.) 

XXX. Irregular passed tense form, Present tense, obj. class. 

ae 

10. ae I have known them (to be punished.) 

XXXI. Irregular passed tense form, Prior passed tense, nom. 
class. 

y 

11. y John seems (to Aewe studied history), with care. 



120 SYSTEM OP PARSING FORMS. 

III. — Mediae Position. 

XXXII. Irregular passed tense form, No tense, nom. class. 

z 

12. z John seems (to have been well taught.) 

IV. — Final Position. 

XXXIII. Regular passed tense form, No tense, nom. class. 

zz 

13. zz John appears (to have been severely punished.) 

XXXIV. Irregular passed tense form, No tense, nom. class. 

zr 

14. zr John seems (to have gone.) 

XXXV. Regular passed tense form, No tense, e>&/. class. 

za 

15. za John seems (to have punished them severely.) 

XXXVI. Irregular passed tense form, No tense, ©&/. class. 

az 

16. az John appears (to have got his lessons well.) 

XXXVII. Regular passed tense form, No tense, 06/. class. 

a/ 

17. al I have known him (to he punished.) 

XXXVIII. Irregular passed tense form, No tense, 06/. class. 

ar 

18. ar I have known him (to be fed.) 

XXXIX. Irregular passed tense form, iVo tense, obj. class. 

va 

19. va. We made them (to be writing letters.) 
LX. Regular passed tense form, iVb tense, ofy'. class. 

ro 

20. ro "We took them (to be punishing their pupils.) 



INDEX ADJECTIVES. 

I. Abfix. 

A. Correct method, [from correct?«ess.] 

B. Good men. 
Better men. 

Best men. 



Incomparable 
Comparable 



II 



Incomparable 



{-{ 



II. StTFFIX, 

( Metallic pipe, [from Metal.] 
Johti's hat. [from John."] 
Mine eyes, [from me } my.] 



SYSTEM OF PARSING FORMS. 



121 



Incomparable 



Application. 

Gold ring. 
Stovepipe. 
Church bell. 
I*V. Absolute. 
( V Far country. pi. Sub Indication. 




Comparable -J W Farther country. [2. Supersub Indication. 



( X Farthest country. £3. Super Indication 
C C The meii. 
Incomparable } g 1 Some knife. 
All children. 



hi: 



INDEX SUB-ADJECTIVES 



Incomparable 



Incomparable 
Comparable 



I. Suffix. 
H Extremely fine. 



II. 
I 



Application. 
So cold. 
Much handier. 
More handy. 
Most handy. 



INDEX ADVERBS. 



Incomparable 
Comparable 



Incomparable 



Incomparable 



Comparable 



I. Suffix. 
A John understood it perfectly. 
B John reads well. 

Peter reads better. 

James reads best. 

II. Prefix. 
He went ahead. 
He went afoot. 
He went aloft. 

III. Application. 
F He is spoken of. 
G He went fast. 
H I went faster. 
They went fastest 



H 

I] 



122 



Comparable 



Incomparable 



SYSTEM OP PARSING FORMS. 



IV. Absolute. 
J He came near to me. 
K They came nearer to me. 
L You came nearest, 

C He came not, 
M < He came here, 

( They went there. 



INDEX SUB-ADVERBS. 



Incomparable 



Incomparable 



Comparable 



I. Suffix. 
Q, He thinks perfectly correct. 
II. Application. 
N He went very fast. 
O John speaks much wiser. 
P Henry speaks more wisely. 
V George speaks most wisely. 



INDEX PREPOSITIONS 

I. Absolute. 
U John came to the house. 

II. Application. 
T He went past the house. 



INDEX CONJUNCTIONS 

I. Absolute. 
S And he began to illustrate. 
II. Application. 
R For he desired to be clearly understood. 



PREPARED EXERCISES IN PARSING. 



[But, before the learner takes these, he should parse all the 
lettered words under page 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 
119, and 120.] 

Matthew chap. vii. 

p .rr M .tt U .bs .rr a AM j 

[Judge ye not others] (for that) (ye may be not judged) 

R U G [o c s u s ne] .bp ag U .bm .rr p 
[For (with what judgment) (it is) (with which) (ye judge 

.tt .rr e h j S U G [o c s u s ne] .bp ag 

others) ye shall be judged] (and (with what measure) (it is) 

.bm p .bp e h j U .nn M 

(which ye mete) it shall be measured (to you) again.) 

S M r .e G [ocsusne] .bh ag U I 

[ And why beholdest thou the mote] (that is ) (in thy 

i? [ocsusne] S p .e M G [ocsusne].bh ag 

brother's eye) (but considerest thou not the b e a m) (that is) 

U E G [o c s u s ne] 
(in thine own eye) 

S M e .e k U £ [oosusm] r .e .d 
[Or how wilt thou say] (to thy brother) (Let thou me 

F u M G[ocsusne]M U J£[ocsusne] S G 

to pull out the mote out) (of thine eye) (and (behold) a 

[n c s u s ne]<zg U E G [ocsusne] 
beam is) (in thine own e y e.) 

.vv [o c a u s mu] I r .e M G [ocsusne] M 
(Thou) (hypocrite,) [ first cast thou out the beam out] 

U E G[ocsusne]S M e .e ad G[ocsusne] 
(of thine own eye) (and then shalt thou see the way 

A F tv M G[ocsusne]M U / E [ocsusne] 

clearly to east out the mote out) (of thy brother's eye) 

123 



124 SYSTEM OP PARSING FORMS. 

r . M .F[ocsusiie] . ag B U G [o c s p u am] 
[Give ye not that t hi n g] (which is holy) (unto the d o g s ;) 

S r .rr £ [ocspune] U [o c s p w u am] S . a 

(neither cast ye your pearls) (before swine) (lest they should 

ac . U £[ocspune] S r .rr M E 

trample them) (under their feet;) (and cast ye not your 

[ocspune] U[ocspwuam]S . a j M S 

p e a r I s) (before s w i n e) {lest they should turn again;) (and 

r . M E [ocspune] U [ocspwuam] S . a 

cast ye not your pea r Is) (before s w i n e) (lest they should 

ad. . 
rend you.) 

I . S . e h k U r . 

[Ask ye] (and it shall be given) (unto you ;) (seek ye 

G[ocsupne]S e ad . / . U G[oosupne] 

the way) (and ye shall find it ;) (knock ye) at the door) 

S . e h j U 

(and it shall be opened) (unto you.) 

R G . . I U[ocsupne] p 

[For every one (that asketh) (for grace) receiveth it;] 

S . r [ocsupne] r , S U 

(and he (that seeketh grace) findeth it;) (and (to him) 

/ U G [ocsupne]. e h j 

(that knocketh) (at the d o o r) it shall be opened.) 

S G[ncsupm]«g M U . _: S i?[ncsupm] 
[Or what man is there] (of you) (who (if his son 

e j U [o c s u p ne] e ad U . G [o c s u p ne] 
should ask) (for bread) will give (unto him) a stone.) 

S S . e j U G[ocsusnu]e .ad V 
[Or (if he should ask) (for a fish) will he give unto 

G [o c s u p mu] 
him) a serpent?] 



SYSTEM OF PARSING FORMS. 125 

S . R .' ss F m M F tv B 
(If ye [then (who being evil) khow how to give good 

[ocspune] U E [ocspu am] N O H e 
gifts) (unto your children,) how much more shall 

E [n c s u p m] . ag U [o c s u p ne] ad ^ [ocspune] 
your Father (that is) [in heaven) give good things] 

U . I U . 

(to them) (that ask) (of him.) 

S G [o c s p u ne] G [o c s p u ne] . ag 

[Therefore all things (whatsoever things) (they are) 
a ac . [n c s p u m] a ad JJ . r 

(which (ye would wish that) men should do) (to you) do 

F F U . R G [ncsupne]ag G[ocsupne] 

ye even so] (to them) (for this p^ac t ice is) (the law) 

S • a S G [o c s p u ne] 
(and it is) (the prophets.) 

/ .FUG B [ocsupne] R B ag G 
[Enter ye in] (at the strait gate) (for wide is the 

pa c s u p ne] S B ag G [n c s u p ne] . m U 

gate) (and broad is the way) (that leadeth) (to 

[o c s u p ne] S G [n c s p u am] -M ag . m 

destruction) (and many persons there are) (who go 

F M 

in thereat ;) 

S B ag G [ncsupne] S B qg G[ncsupne] 
(Because strait is the gate) (and narrow is the way) 

m U [ocsupne] & B [ncspuam] M ag 

(which leadeth) (unto life) (and few persons there are) 



[ocspum] . m U 

prophets) (who come) (to you) 

S . A ag E 

(but who inwardly are) (ravening 



r 
(that find 


it.) 






m 
[Beware 


y e ] 


U 

(of 


G 

false 


U E 

(in sheep's 


[oc su 
cloth 


pne] 
in S>) 


[o c s p u am 


] 






wolves ;) 









126 SYSTEM OF PARSING FORMS. 

e ad . U E [ocspune] ab [nc spurn] 

[Ye shall know them] (by their fruits.) [Do men 

ac [ocspune] U [ocspune] S ab . ac [ocspune] 
gather grapes] (of thorns) (or do they gather figs) 

U [o c s p u ne] 
(of thistles?) 

R R G B [ncsupne] r M B [ocsupne] 

[Even so every good tree bringeth forth good fruit;] 

S G G [ncsupm] r M f [ocsupne] 

(but a corrupt tree bringeth forth evil fruit.) 

G i?[ncsupne]a M ad M F [ocsupne] S 
[A good tree can not bring forth evil fruit,] (neither 

a G G [ncsupne] a/f M B [ocsupne] 
can a corrupt tree bring forth good fruit.) 

G [ncsupne] . r M * M B [ocsupn^]a6 

[Every tree (that bringeth not forth good fruit) is 

A: M S . ab k U G [o c s u p ne] 
hewn down,] (and it is cast) (into the fir e.) 

S U jG [ocspune] . e ' ad 

[Wherefore, (by their fruits) ye shall know them.] 

M G . . m U . [ocaup m] [ocaupm] 

[Not every one (that saith) (unto me) (Lor d) (Lord) 

e j U G [ocsupne] U [ocsupne] S 

shall enter] (into the kingdom of heaven) (but he (that 

r G [o c s u p ne] U E [o c s u p m] . ag U [o c s u p ne] 
doeth the will) (of my Father) (who is) (in heave n) 

e 3 

shall enter.) 

G [n c s p u am] e k U . U F [o c s u p ne] 
[Many persons will say] (to me) (in that day,) 

[ocaupm] [ocaupm] b . M j U ^[ocsupne] 

(Lor d,) (L o r d,) (have we not prophesied in thy name? 



SYSTEM OF PARSING FORMS. 127 



S U E [oc supne] b . M ad M [ocspuam] S 
(and fin thy name) have we not cast out devils?) (and 

U i?[ocsupne]J . M ad G E [ocspune] 

(in thy name) have we not done many wonderful works'?) 

S M e . ac U . M q 

[And then will I profess (unto them) that] (I never knew you:) 

I . U . . • p [ocsupne] 
(depart ye) (from me) (ye) (that work iniquity.) 

Sf . r G [ocspune] U E 

[Therefore (whosoever heareth these sayings) (of mine 

[ocspu ne] S . r . . e ac , V G 

sayings) (and whosoever doeth them,) I will liken him] (unto a 

B [ocsupm] . qs E [ocsupne] U G [ocsupne] 
wise m a n,) (who built his house) (upon a rock:) 

S G [nc supne] n S G [ncspune] o S 

(And the rain descended,) (and the floods came) (and 

G [ncspune] o S . o U F [ocsupne] S 
the winds blew,) (and they beat) (upon that house,) (and 

.0 M R . g kj U G[ocsupne] 
it fell not,) (for it was built) (upon a rock.) 

S G g . r G [ocspune] U E 

[And every one (that heareth these sayings) (of mine 

[o c s p u ne] S . r . M eh j V G 

sayings,) (and that doeth them not,) shall be likened] (unto a 

£ [ocsupm] . q s 2?[ocsup ne] U G [o c s u p ne] 
foolish m a n,) (who built his h ou se) upon the s a n d.) 

S G [n c s u p ne] n S G [ncspune] o 8 

[And the rain descended,) (and the floods came) (and 

G [ncspune] o S . o U F [ocsupne] S 

the winds blew,) (and they beat) (upon that house,) (and 

. o S B ab G[ncsupne]U . 
it fell,) (and great was the f a 1 1) (of it.) 



128 SYSTEM OF PARSING FORMS. 

S . o F ee M [n c s u p m] d ac G G 
[And it came to pass* when] (Jesus had ended all these 

[ocspune] G[nc sp wuam] g j U E [ocspune] 

sayings,) (the people were astonished) at his doctrines )) 



R . q . R r [ocspwu am] . ab 

(For he taught them) (as one teaches people) (who is 

ad [ocsupne] 5 q . M R G[ncspusam] 

having authority) (and he taught them not) (as the Scribes 

9 

teach them.) 



* Pass is a branch word of the verb denomination, suspending 
its sentensic, but exerting its tense power in marking present time, 
solo position, regular passed tense form. 



Note. — As the numerdiction, genediction, and the means of 
plussing nouns, and pronouns, are often so simple that the learner 
is able to decide without any aid, the parsing letters are fre- 
quently withheld from the numerdiction, genediction, and the 
means of plussing. 



EXERCISES TO BE PREPARED WITH THE PEN- 
CIL, BY THE PUPIL FOR PARSING. 

Matthew chap, vii. 
[Judge ye not others] (for that), (ye may be not judged) 

[ For ( with what j udgmen t) (it is ) ( with which) (ye judge 
others ) ye shall be judged] (and (with what measure) (it is) 
(which ye mete) it shall be measured (to you) again.) 

[And why beholdest thou the mote] (that is ) ( in thy 
brother's e y e) (but considerest thou not the beam) (that is) 
(in thine own eye) 

[Or how wilt thou say] (to thy brother) (Let thou me 
to pull out the mote out) (of thine eye) (and (behold) a 
beam is) (in thine own e y e.) 

^Thou) (hypocrite,) [ first cast thou out the beam out] 

(of thine own eye) (and then shalt thou see the way 

clearly to cast out the mote out) (of thy brother's eye) 

129 



130 SYSTEM OP PARSING FORMS. 

[Give ye not that thin g] (which is holy) (unto the d o g s j) 
(neither cast ye your pearls) (before swine) (lest they should 
trample them) (under their feet;) (and cast ye not your 
p e a r I s) (before s w i n e) {lest they should turn again;) (and 
cast ye not your p ea r I s) (before swine) (lest they should 
rend you.) 

• • • • 

[Ask ye] (and it shall be given) (unto you;) (seek ye 

the way) (and ye shall find it ;) (knock ye) at the door) 
(and it shall be opened) (unto you.) 

[For every one (that asketh) (for grace) receiveth it;] 
(and he (that seeketh grace) findeth it;) (and (to him) 
that knocketh) (at the d o o r) it shall be opened.) 

[Or what man is there] (of you) (who (if his son 
should ask) (for bread) will give (unto him) a stone.) 

[Or (if he should ask) (for a fish) will he give unto 
him) a serpent?] 



SYSTEM OP PARSING FORMS. 131 

(If ye [then (who being evil) khow how to give good 
gifts) (unto your children,) how much more shall 

your Father (that is) (in heaven) give good things] 

(to them) (that ask) (of him.) 

[Therefore all things (whatsoever things) (they are) 

• • • • 

(which (ye would wish that) men should do) (to you) do 

yo even so] (to them) (for this practice is) (the law) 
(and it is) (the prophets.) 

[Enter ye in] (at the strait gate) (for wide is the 
gate) (and broad is the way) (that leadeth ) (to 

destruction) (and many persons there are) (who go 

in thereat;) 

(Because strait is the gat e) (and narrow is the way) 
(which leadeth) (unto life) (and few persons there are) 
(that find it.) 

[Beware ye] (of false prophets) (who come) (to you) 
(in sheep's clothing,) (but who inwardly are) (ravening 
wolyesj) 



132 SYSTEM OF PARSING FORMS. 

[Ye shall know them] (by their fruits..) [Do men 
gather grapes] (of thorns) (or do they gather figs) 
(of thistles?) 

[Even so every good tree bringeth forth good fruit;] 
(but a corrupt tree bringeth forth evil fruit) 

[A good tree can not bring forth evil fruit,] (neither 
can a corrupt tree bring forth good fruit.) 

[Every tree (that bringeth not forth good fruit) is 
hewn down,] (and it is cast) (into the fir e.) 

[Wherefore, (by their fruits) ye shall know them.] 

[Not every one (that saith) (unto me) (Lord) (Lord) 
shall enter] (into the kingdom of heaven) (but he (that 
doeth the will) (of my F a t h e r) (who is) (in heaven) 
shall enter,) 

[Many persons will say] (to me) (in that d a y,) 

c 

(Lor d,) (Lor d,) (have we not prophesied in thy name? 



SYSTEH OF PARSING FORMS. 133 

(and (in thy name) have we not cast out devils?) (and 
(in thy name) have we not done many wonderful works?) 

[And then will I profess (unto them) that] {I newer knew you :) 
(depart ye) (from me) (ye) (that work iniquity.) 

[Therefore (whosoever heareth these sayings) (of mine 
sayings) (and whosoever doeth them,) I will liken him] (unto a 
wise m a n,) (who built his house) (upon a r o c Ji :) 

(And the rain descended,) (and the floods came) (and 
the winds blew,) (and they beat) (upon that h o u s e,) (and 
it fell not,) (for it was built) (upon a.rock.) 

[And every one (that heareth these sayings) (of mine 
sayings,) (and that doeth them not,) shall be likened] (unto a 
foolish m a n,) (who built his h o u se) upon the sand.) 

[And the rain descended,) (and the floods came) (and 
the winds blew,) (and they beat) (upon that house,) (and 
it fell,) (and great was the fall) (of it.) 



134 SYSTEM OF PARSING FORMS. 

[And it came to pass* when] (Jesus had ended all these 
sayings,) (the people were astonished) at his doctrines ;> 

(For he taught^ them) (as one teaches people) [who h 
having authority) (and he taught them not) (as the Scribes 
teach them.) 



* Pass is a branch word of the verb denomination, suspending 
its sentensiCy but exerting its tense power in marking present time, 
solo position, regular passed tense form. 



Note. — As the numerdiclio?i, genediction, and the means of 
plussing nouns, and pronouns, are often so simple that the learner 
is able to decide without any aid, the parsing letters are fre- 
quently withheld from the numerdiction, genediction, and the 
means of plussing. 






SYNTAX. 135 

PART III. 



English Syntax. 

English Syntax is the third part of English Grammar, and 
respects the art of using the English Language with propriety in 
accidence, construction, figure, and style.* 

Remarks.— -That the popular Rule, the verb agrees with its nominative 
case in number, and person, is worse than useless, must be clear to all who 
examine the relation between the nominative noun, or pronoun, and its verb. 
There are three, or four brief inflections which are affixed to, or cut off from 
inceptive, and solo verbs by the nominative nouns, and pronouns which aid 
these verbs in forming the sentensic dictions of the sections in which they are 
used. These inflections are s, es, th, t, and st. Now, although these inflec- 
tions belong to verbs, yet as they are affixed to, or kept from the verb by the 
influence of the nominative noun, or pronoun, they are here called the nomina- 
tive inflections of verbs. And to teach the mere child when to use these in- 
flections, and whento reject them, the old Grammars give the following Rule : 
The verb must agree with its nominative case in number and person. 

{In Brown's Class Book of Criticism, an attempt is made to demonstrate 
that this Rule is not calculated to throw any light upon the relation which exists 
between the nominative noun, or pronoun, and its verb.) 

The following Rules are offered as a substitute for this one. 

Remember that the nominative inflections are s, es, th, t, and st. But, 
before the Rules for the use, and rejection of these inflections can be bene- 
ficially given, the pupil should have other Rules that relate to other verb 
forms which are called primitive. 

RULES RESPECTING THE PRIMITIVE FORMS OF VERBS. 

Kule I. — The medial, or the final verb which fol- 
lows a verb that is uniformly inceptive, should have its 
primitive form; as, He can write. 

Specimen of Correcting by Rule I. 

1. He can writes letters. 

The s inflection of write, is a violation of Rule I. 
Rule * ; as, He can write letters. 

2. Thou canst not went. 

The use of went for go, is a violation of Rule I. 
Rule * ; as, Thou canst not go. 

* In Syntax, accidence means gender, number, tense, mode, &c. 
In Syntax, construction is the arrangement of the words of a section, and of the sections 
of a sentence. 
In Syntax, figure is an ellipsis, enaUage, a,pleonasam, or a syllepsis. 

In Syntax, style imports a suitableness of one word to another in shade of thought, [Book 
II., pp. 305, 312 ;] a suitableness of one section, or one sentence to another in form, [Book H.;] 
and a suitableness of certain supers in framework standing. [Book II., p. 367. J 
* Here give the Rule. 



136 SYNTAX. 

The pupil should be made to correct exactly according to the Specimens. 
Where the violation lies in the inflection of the verb, he should be made to 
correct by the first specimen ; as, He can understands. 

But where the violation lies in the use of one entire verb for another verb, 
he should correct by the second specimen ; as, He can is a good boy. 

The use of is for be is a violation of Rule I. 

Directions. — In the following Exercises, the violations of the 
Rules, lie in the trunk, and sentensic branch sections, — hence the pupil 
should give no attention to insentensie branch sections. 

Dispose of the trunk sections first, in all instances. 

Exercises. — 1. [They can are] (good boys.) 2. [This boy must is] (a 
good boy.) 3. [Thou wilt art] (a dull pupil.) 4. [Could he is] (a fine 
child?) 5. [He might studies to hard.] 6. [Thou shouldst keeps quiet.] 
7. [Jacob will falls.] 8. [I may went.] 

Note. — The final verb of do, and did, should have its primitive 
form ; as, They do write ; They did write. 

Specimen of Correcting hy Note I. under Rule I. 

1. I do writes. 

The s inflection of write, is a violation of Note 1. « 

Note ■ ; as, I do write. 

2. [I did went] (last week.) 
The use of went for go, is a violation of Note I. 
Note ; as, I did go last week. 

Exercises. — 1. James did fell. 2. Does he likes fruit? 3. Harriet did 
wrote. 4. Thou didst went. 5. Thou didst came in. 6. She does speaks 
correctly. 7. Thou didst goest out. 8. Whom did they sent? 

Can do, and did, ever be used with he's variations ? 

Did cannot — and do cannot except in a kind of petition, where it may be 
used with be only ; as, John, do be a good boy. 

Kule II. — When the diction is a mere command, or 
a mere petition, the verb should have its primitive 
form; as, Be thou here in time; Go thou to school; 
Come ye home ; Forgive thou our sins. 

Remark. — There may be a command with an affirmation ; as, Thou shalt 
not steal. And there may be a petition with an interrogation ; as, Will you 
lend me your knife'? 

Specimen of Correcting under Rule II. 

1. Loves your enemies. 
The s inflection of love, is a violation of Rule II. 
Rule ; as, Love your enemies. 

Exercises. — 1. [Writes these, copies accurately,] (John.) 2. [Comes in,] 
(sir.) 3. [Forgives thou our sins.] 4. [Has thou mercy] (upon us.) 
5. [Goes , to the well] (and brings , some water.) 6. [Blesses , 
them] (that persecute you.) 



SYNTAX. 137 

Rule III. — Have, and all its variations, give the 
following verb the tenseless Be and Have form, or some 
form which is substituted for the Be and Have form ; 
as, Have written, not have wrote ; Must have flown, 
not have flew ; Hath fallen, not hath fell; Hath 
drunk, not hath drank. 

Note. — Hide has the Be and Have form — still hid is frequently substituted 
for this form. Have hidden. This is the case with several other verbs. 

Specimen of Correcting under Rule III. 

1. I have did'it. 
The want of the Be and Have form of do, is a violation of Rule III. 

Rule ; as, I have done it. 

2. The boiler had burster. 
The want of the primitive state of burst, is a violation of Rule III. 
Rule ; as, The boiler had burst. 

Exercises. — 1. He has wrote his copy. 2. I would have wrote a letter. 
3. He has drank. 4. I have came. 5. I had did it. 6. The birds have 
flew. 7. He had mistook his true interest. 8. He has wove the web. 9. 
His vices have weakened his mind and broke his constitution. 10. He 
has took the gun with him. 11. Joseph has fell down stairs. 12. The 
court has went into an examination. 13. They have invite her home. 

Rule IV. — Be, and all its varirtions give the fol- 
lowing verb the tenseless Be, or the tenseless Be and 
Have form, or some form which is substituted for the 
Be and Have form ; as, Is written, (not is wrote ;) (Is 
writing, (not is write.) 

The variations of Be, are am, art, is, are, was, wast, were, been, and being. 
Note. — Be never gives the tenseless Be and Have form to be. We do not 
say — I must ie been ; I am being ; I am been. 

Specimen of Correcting hy Rule IV. 

1. The hat was took. 
The want of the tenseless Be and Have form, of take, is a violation of 
Rule IV. 

Rule ! ; aSj The hat was taken. 

2. He was laugh heartily. 
The want of the tenseless Be form of laugh is a violation of Rule IV. 

Rule ; as, He was laughm^ heartily. 

3. The work was well execute. 
The want of the passed tense form of execute, is a violation of Rule IV.* 
Rule ; as, The work was well executed. 

* The passed tense form is here the Be and Have form. 



138 SYNTAX. 

Exercises. — 1. It was drank. 2. [His resolution was too strong to be 
shook] (by opposition.) 3. The horse was stole. 4. The Rhine was froze 
over. 5. [She was invite] (into the drawing room.) 6. [Some fell] (by the 
way side,) (and was trod down.) 7. The work was very well execute. 8. It 
has been did. 9. [The French language is spoke] (in many countries.) 10. 
He was then breathe easily. 11. The water was run rapidly. 

Kule V. — The nominative pronoun of the formative 
indication, and uni numerdiction, requires am as the 
present, and was as the passed tense of Be ; as, I am, 
I teas, John saw me who am his friend. 

Note. — Who relates to, and is used for the pronoun, me, and by 
imputation j becomes formative, and uni. 

Specimen of Correcting by Rule V. 

1. [I be] (in good health.) 
The use of be for am, is a violation of Rule V. 
Rule ■ -; as, [I am] (in good health.) 

Exercises. — 1. I is sick. 2. [I are] (his friend.) 3. [I is] (the man) 
(who is) thy commander.) 4. [I (that were there) is now to declaim.] 5. 
[I (who art bad) must repent.] 6. [I that are friendly) (to all) are glad to 
see thee.] 

Rule VI. — The nominative pronoun of the self subject 
indication, and uni numerdiction, requires art as the 
present, and wast as the passed tense of Be; as, John, 
thou art now in good health, but John, thou ivast not 
then in good health. Joseph saw thee who art now 
here. 

Note. — Who relates to, and is used for the pronoun, thee, and by 
imputation, becomes self subject, and uni. 

Specimen of Correcting by Rule VI. 

1. [Thou be] (a good boy.) 
The use of be for art is a violation of Rule VI. 
Rule ; as, [Thou art] (a good boy.) 

Exercises. — 1. Thou is not sick. 2. [Thou is] (my friend.) 3. Thou 
surely am well. 4. [Is thou not] (his son ?) 5. [Thou could be employed] 
(if thou was sober.) 6. [Was thou] (at church) ( , last Sabbath ?) 7. 
(Is thou reading,] (Charles ?) 8. [Why am thou not] (a philosopher ? 9. 
[He saw thee] (who are fishing.) 10. [Thou (who are skilful) am able to 
heal the sick.] 11. [I went] (with thee) (who are ignorant) (of the way.) 



SYNTAX 139 

Rule VII. — The nominative noun, or pronoun of 
the subjective indication, and uni numerdiction, re- 
quires is as the present, and was as the passed tense of 
Be ; as, John is now well, but he was then ill ; Na- 
thaniel saw him who was then present. 

Note. — Who, relates to, and is usedybr the pronoun, him, and by 
imputation, becomes subjective, and uni. 

Specimen of Correcting by VII. 
1. [He are] (with you.) 
The use of are for is, is a violation of Rule VII.; 
Rule ; as, [He is] (with you.) 

Exercises. — 1. [He am] (with John.) 2. [She are] (his sister.) 3. [This 
book (which I have) are old.] 4. [The pen (and the knife , , ) 
are new.] 5. [Life (and death , )( , , >)( , » » ) are] 
(in the power) (of the tongue. ) 6. [Every plant >>](»>,) 
( , every flower >>)(>>») ( an< I every drop (of water) are 
replete) (with living creatures.) 7. [This is] (the man) (who were so 
sick.) 8. [Get such a book] (as are suitable) (for the child.) 9. [Get the 
book] (that are well bound.) 10. [Either the boy, (or the girl) were present.] 
11. [I (and he) are.] See Class Book or Criticism. 12. [Death are] (the 
wages) (of sin.) 13. The court are agreed. See Class Book of Criticism. 
14. One jury are dismissed. 15. (From this rule) (there are a number) (of 
exceptions.) — Peter Bullions' English Grammar, page 139. 16. And not only 
are the mass (of the people) ignorant of English grammar, &c. — H. A. Pue's 
English Grammar. 17. (If he were) (a good boy) [,,,,.] 18. 
[Your hand are small] (but mine are large.) See Class Book of Criticism. 

Rule VIII. — In the affirmative, subfirmative, and 
interrogative diction, the nominative noun, or pronoun 
of the plus numerdiction, requires are as the present, 
and were as the passed tense of Be; as, These apples 
are now ripe, they are now fit for use ; The peaches 
were then ripe, they were then fit for use ; The apples 
which are ripe, {are, were.) 

Note. — Wliich, relates to, and is used for the noun, apples, and by 
imputation, becomes plus. 

Specimen of Correcting under Rule VIII. 

1. We is well pleased. 
The use of is for are, is a violation of Rule VIII. 
Rule ; as, We are well pleased. 



140 SYNTAX. 

Exercises. — 1. We was sleeping. 2. They is running. 3. Is they all well ? 
4. [Was they] (at home ?) 5. [They was] (in the city.) 6. [They be] (fine 
apples.) 7. [There is] (the men) (who was) (with you) ( , yesterday.) 
8. [The gentlemen art satisfied;] (and the ladies is pleased.) 9. [The boys 
(who was here) am] (in school.) 10. [Give (me) such apples] (as is sale- 
able.) 11. [All the congregations (in town) is small.] 

Eule IX. — Where the nominative pronoun exerts 
no influence over the form of the verb as in the imper- 
ative, and petitionative diction, the diction of the section 
requires be as the present tense of Be; as, John, Be 
thou in early; (0,) (Lord,) (be , ) (our guide) 
(through life.) [be.) 

[That is,] (be thou) (our guide) (through life.) 

Note. — In the imperative, and petitionative diction, pronouns only, 
aid the verb in forming the dictions of the sections. Hence Rule 
IX. does not include nouns. 

Remark. — Having given the rules which respect the use of Be, we shall 
now give those which regard the use of the nominative inflections, s, es, th, t 
and st. In a note under the first page on Syntax, we speak of these inflec- 
tions. 

Rule X. — The nominative pronoun of the formative 
indication, and uni numerdiction, cuts off every nom- 
inative inflection from inceptive, and solo verbs ; as, I 
can go, I write, I wrote, I have written, [It is] (I) who 
laugh. 

Note I. — This Eule is restricted to pronouns, because nouns are 
never of the formative indication. 

Note II. — Have is an inceptive verb, and has several forms ) as, 
has, hath, hast, &c. 

Have may take the s inflection as has ; it may take the th; as, he 
hath written ; have may take the st inflection ; as, thou has* written. 

Note III. — Who relates to, and is used for the pronoun I, and by 
imputation, becomes formative, and uni. 

Specimen of Correcting by Rule X. 

1. I writes letters. 
The s inflection of write, is a violation of Rule X. 
Rule — — ; as, I write letters. 



SYNTAX. 141 

Exercises.— 1. I wrotest letters. 2, I thinkest so. 3. I believest it. 
4. I runs very fast. 5. [Says I] (lie will not come.) 6. I were well pleased. 
7. [The boy saw me] (who was then) (his protector.) 8. [I (who teaches 
thee) wilt go] (with you) (to church.) 9. [He , ] ( , thou , . ) (and 
I writes.) 10. [Thinks I] (to myself.) 11. [Says I] (he is very sick.) 

Eule XI. — In the affirmative, subjirmative, and in- 
terrogative diction, the nominative pronoun of the self- 
subject indication, and uni numerdiction, gives the t, or 
the st inflection to inceptive, and solo verbs which can 
take these inflections; as, Thou cans£ write, Thou 
writer, Thou wrotestf, Thou hast written, Thou was£. 
[It is] (thou) (who laughed.) (canstf, writes^, wrotes^ 
hast, wast, laughed.) 

Note. — Must can not take either of these inflections. And wast 
is not a substitute for was ; the t inflection is a mere variation of 
was, which is produced by the nominative^ pronoun, thou. 

Specimen of Correcting by Rule XI. 
1. Thou wrote too soon. 
The want of the st inflection of wrote, is a violation of Eule XI. 
- Eule ; as, Thou wrot.es* too soon. 

Exercises. — 1. Thou smiles. 2. Thou runs. 3. Thou cans walk. 4. 
Thou loved thy son too little. 5. Thou did- not see him. 6. [Thou has a 
fine book,] (Stephen.) 7. [The child saw thee] (who loves it.) 8. [Thou 
(that reads orations) can declaim.] 9. [I , ] ( , he , ) (and , 
thou laugh.) 10. (If thou do not think more) [thou will never learn.] 11. 
[If thou can write a good hand) [thou will suit me.] 

Eule XII. — The nominative noun, or pronoun of 
the subjective indication, and uni numerdiction, gives 
the s, es, or the th inflection in the present, and middle 
present tense to inceptive, and solo verbs which can take 
these inflections ; as, Henry has written a book, John 
has a new book, Nathaniel binds books, The jury has 
agreed, The meeting hath dispersed, The court has de- 
cided the point, A meeting of his friends has been 
called, The pupil who studies with care, learns fast.] 
(has, binds, hath, studies, learns.) 

Note. — Who relates to, and is used for pupil, and, by imputation 
becomes subjective, and uni. 



142 SYNTAX. 

Specimen of Correcting hy Rule XII. 

1. [He write] (to his friend) (every week.) 
The want of the s inflection of write, is a violation of Rule XII. 
Rule ; as, [He writes] (to his friend,) &c. 

Exercises. — 1. James write letters. 2. [Stephen walk] (with me.) 3. 
It rain quite fast. 4. She sing sweetly. 6. The apple taste sweet. 6. The 
grass grow high. 7. [The number amount] (to seven hundred.) 8. [I , 
, ] (and thou , , ) (and he write letters. 9. (If Jason come) (for me) 
[I will go] (with him.) 

Note. — Every noun denoting an assemblage, or collective body, is uni, 
until it is plussed by a pluror ; as, Jury, juries; Court, courts; Meeting, 
meetings. 

We cannot say, three court, two jury, seven meeting, these committee. 
Hence we should not say, the jury are, the court have, the meeting were ad- 
dressed. 

If these collective nouns, as they are called in the old theory, are plus, 
they would take three, or any other plural adjective. We can say, one court; 
but we cannot say two court. 

Eule XIII. — Nominative nouns, and pronouns of 
the 'plus numerdiction, cut off all the nominative inflec- 
tions from inceptive and solo verbs ; as, boys write, men 
who try succeed, {write, try, succeed.) 

Note. — Who, relates to, and is used for the noun, men, and by 
imputation becomes plus. 

Specimen of Correcting hy Rule XIII. 

1. We reads books. 
The s inflection of read is a violation of Rule XIII. 
Rule ; as, We read books. 

Exercises. — 1. We laughs. 2. They speaks slowly. 3. The men talks. 
4. These lads runs. 5. Hence comes wars. 6. [They (who tries) succeeds.] 
7. [Fifty pounds (of wheat) contains] (forty pounds) (of flour.) 8. [The 
men (who sells apples) makes money slowly.] 9. [Printers (who perse- 
veres) makes fortunes.] 10. [The boys (that goes) (to school) learns.] 11. 
[The birds (which flies high) has strong wings.] 12. [The apples (which 
grows) (on that tree) falls off before] (they become ripe.) 13. [The lads 
(who has written their copies) has gone out.] 14. [He has such apples] (as 
grows) (on your young trees) (in the garden.) 15. [As many boys (as has 
returned) will study their books immediately.] 

Remark I. — A pronoun which is plussed by imputation, may be plussed by 
two uni nouns, or pronouns, even when they are in different sections ; as, 
[He saw me] (and her) (who are his friends.) 

16. [I saw the girl,] (and boy) (who goes) (to that school.) 17. [He 



SYNTAX. 143 

hired the servant,] (and rented the plantation) (that belongs) (to my bro- 
ther.) 18. [He occupies the house] (as well as the barn) (which belongs) 
(to William Johnson.) 

Remark II. — Where the pronoun relates to uni nouns by alteration, it is 
not plussed by them. 

19. [I saw John,] (or James) (who were) (at church.) 20. [Henry, (or 
Stephen , ) (who were) (in the house) laughed.] 21. [Isaac, (or Newton 
, , ) (who were) (at school) has returned.] 

Remark. — The following Rule may be read, and the exercises 
under it may be made to suit it. Yet, as the Rule itself is founded 
in error, the author cannot recommend any person to speak, or write 
by it. The doctine of this Rule, is discussed in the Class Book or 
Criticism. 

Eule XIV. — Where and comes between two nom- 
inatives of the uni numerdiction, and there is an ellip- 
sis of one or more verbs, the expressed verb should 
have no nominative inflections ; as, [John (and James 

, ) write.'] [He (and she 9 ) read] (write, read.) 

This Rule is inserted in compliance with custom, but in opposition to the 
true principles of our language. 

That it is the ellipsis which cuts off these inflections, and requires are, or 
were, is obvious from the fact that when the superior section is made plenary , 
the singular noun or pronoun, in both sections, has the same influence over 
the verb, which it has where' awe? does not occur; as, [I am~\ (his friend,) 
(and he is) (his friend,) not, [I are] [his friends,) (and he are) (his friends.) 
[I laugh,] (and John laughs,) not, [I laughs,] (and John laugh.) 

The verb, then receives the plural number, as they call it, not because of 
and, nor because of the two nominatives which we are told, are connected by 
and, but merely, because the verb which is expressed in the section subjoined 
by and, is understood in the section with which and's section makes sense. 
The verb, therefore, agrees, not with the nominative^ but with the ellipsis in 
the implenary sections ! 

Specimen of Correcting by Eule XIV. 

1. [I (and John , ) laughs.] 
The s inflection of laugh, is a violation of Rule XIV. 
Note ; as, [I (and John , ) laugh.] 

The following exercises are correct English as they now stand, according 
to the principles of that relation which exists between the nominative noun 
and the verb — but they are placed under the fourteenth Rule, to be deformed 
(not corrected) by the doctrine of custom. [See Class Book of Ceiticism. 



144 SYNTAX. 

Exercises. — 1. The g^irl, and the boy laughs. 2. John, and Henry writes 
letters. 3. The wind, and water comes severely. 4. John and his bi -*w 
looks ill. 5. I, thou, and he sees accurately. 6. The ship and th» 
sails fast. 7. The lad, and the Indian moves rapidly. 8. He, and I ■ 
daily. 9. The branch, and the trunk grows. 

Note I. — When and comes between two nominatives of the uni num 
tion, and there is an ellipsis of one, or more verbs, the ellipsis requir 
the present, and were as the passed tense of be ; as, (/, and thou are 
friends) [thou (and I , were] (his friends.] 

Exercises under Note I. — 1. [Socrates, (and Plato) was] (an er 
philosopher.) 2. [The son, (and father) was.] 3; [Life, (and deat 
(in the power) (of the tongue.) 4. [The time, (and place) was appoi 
6. [Idleness, (and ignorance) is] (the parent) (of many vices.) 

Rendered plenary — [Idleness is] (the parent) (of many vices ;) (and j^ 
ranee is) (the parent) (of many vices.) 

Note. — The objector may say that it is not the intention of the writer to 
say that idleness alone, is the parent of many vices ; but that idleness united 
with ignorance, is the parent of many vices. If so, he should say, idleness 
with ignorance, is the parent of many vices. There is a great difference be- 
tween with, and and 

Note II. — If the diction is imperative, the diction of the section, and not 
the ellipsis of the verb, requires be as the present tense of be; as, be thou 
good, (be.) 

Rule XV. — The imperative, and the petitionative 
diction require the primitive state of the inceptive, and 
solo verbs ; as, Go thou, come ye, Bead thou the pa- 
pers, Have thou nlercy on us, Be thou writing the let- 
ters soon. Lord, he thou our guide through life. 

Rule XVI. — To, in the half section, whether ex- 
pressed, or understood, gives the inceptive, and the solo 
verb the primitive form; as, To have been punished; 
To be written; To write. 

Note. — Have, and be are the only inceptive verbs which can be used in the 
half section. And have, and been are the only medial ones which can be used 
in the half section. 

Have, and be may be in the half section as solo verbs ; as, Henry wishes 
to be good ; Charles desires to have a new book. 

Rule XVII. — Uni nouns which terminate with but 
one s, and nouns whether uni, or plus, which do not 



SYNTAX. 



145 



terminate with s, are rendered suffix adjectives by 
affixing an apostrophe, and an s; thus 's. 

1. James's glove, 

2. John's hat, 

3. A lady's ring, 

4. A child's tooth, 

5. Children's teeth, 

6. Teeth's position, 

Specimen of Correcting by Rule XYII. 
1. Hudsons' Bay. 
As Hudson is uni, and has no terminating s, it should he rendered an ad- 
jective by placing the apostrophe before the affixed s. 
Rule — — — ; as, Hudson's Bay. 

2. Bullions' Grammar. 
As Bullions is uni, it should he rendered an adjective by placing the' apos- 
trophe before the affixed s. 

Rule ; as, Bullions'* Grammar 

Exekcises. — 1. Pompeys' pillar. 2. Virtues' reward. 3. A good mans' 
heart. 4. Helens' beauty. 5. A moments' attention. 6. Georges' book. 
7. A mothers' tenderness. 8. A fathers' care. 9. Natures' gifts. 10. 
Troys' destruction. 11. A days' journey. 12. Philips' hat. 

Rule XVIII. — Uni nouns which terminate with ss, 
and plus ones which terminate with s, are rendered 
adjectives by placing the apostrophe after the termi- 
nating ss, or s; as, For holiness sake; Ladies' hats; 
Eagles wings. 

Specimen of Correcting by Rule XVIII. 

1. Ladies's rings. 

As ladies is plus, and terminates with s, it should be rendered an adjective 
by placing the apostrophe after the s. 
Rule — ; as, Ladies' rings. 

2. Holmes's sake. 

As holiness is uni, and terminates with ss, it should be rendered an adjec- 
tive by placing the apostrophe (') after the ss. . 
Rule -. ; as, Holiness' sake. 



Exekcises. — 1. The likenes's accuracy. 2, Righteousnes's cause. 3: 
Blis's staff. 4. This las's finger ring. 5. This mis's hat. 6. Six pen's 
points. 7. Five tree's branches. 8. Both ship's crews. 9. Many fisho's 
fins. 10. Thirty file's teeth. 

7 



146 SYNTAX. 

Remark I. — When the s, used to render a noun an adjective, 
will coalesce with the adjective itself, the s is pronounced in the same 
syllable; as, John's hat. 

But when the s does not harmonize, another syllable is added in 
the pronunciation; as ; Thomas', Bliss'. Pronounced, Thomasis, 



Remark II. — Where several of these suffix adjectives fall in 
succession, it is deemed sufficient by some grammarians, to ex- 
press the adjective sign after the last word only; as, John, Jane, Ste- 
phen, and Chester's book. 

The adjective sign is understood at John, Jane, and Stephen. But 
this sign should certainly be expressed after each word ; as, John's, 
Jane's, Stephen's, and Chester's book. This is " Jane book," is not 
English. 

Remark III. — When the sign of the attribute is made the trunk 
word, the name of the subject should have the apostrophic adjective 
form ; as, [John's going (to Boston,) was well known.] [They knew] 
(of John's going) (to Boston.) 

Note. — Going is the name of the attribute, and is here made the trunk 
■word. John is the subject of this attribute — hence, the word, John, is thrown 
into the apostrophic adjective form. John going, is not English. 

Rule XIX. — If the adverb which has no sub, can 
take ly, it should have this termination, except when 
this inflection would offend an educated ear ; as, The 
person conducts modestly, He speaks accurately, The 
purest clay burns white, — not, The purest clay burns 
whitely, The grass looks green,— not, The grass looks 
greenly. 

Specimen of Correcting by Rule XIX, 

1. He writes correct. 
The want of the ly inflection of correct, is a violation of Rule XIX, 
Rule ; as, He writes correctly. 

Exercises. — 1. She sings sweet. 2. Grammarians should speak accurate. 
3 The ship moves smooth along. 4. This note is written very correct, 5. 
He conducts himself very upright. 6. His property is near exhausted. 7. 
[She writes neat,] (and spells accurate.) 8. They appear to be neat finished. 
9. [Hers speaks as correct] as yours.) 

Note I. — Where the ly inflection would offend good taste in lan- 
guage, the adverb should not have this termination; as ; the lady- 
appears gay — not, gaily. 



SYNTAX. 147 

Specimen of Correcting by Note I. under Rule XIX. 
1. The man appears od<%. 
- The ly inflection of odd, is a violation of Note I. under Rule XIX. 
Note ; as, The man appears odd. 

Exercises. — 1. The bird looks beautifully. 2. The lady appears gaily. 3. 
She appears handsomely. 4. The stick looks crookedly. 5. The paper 
appears whitely. 6. The block looks squarely. 7. [Drink deeply,] (or 
taste not the Pierian spring.) 8. Heaven opened widely her ever during 
gates. 9. The victory cost them dearly. 10. [Thickly, (and more thickly) 
the steelly circle grows.] 11. [The cakes taste shortly,] (and crisply.) 12. 
[John marched straightly] (up a steep ascent) (of steps) which were cut 
closely,) (and deeply) (into the rock.) 

Note II. — When both the sub, and the swperadverb can take ly, 
this inflection should be given to the sub only ; as, She conducts ex- 
ceedingly indiscreet. 

Specimen of Correcting by Note II. under Rule XIX. 

1. She behaved exceeding indiscreetZy. 
The ly inflection of indiscreet, is a violation of Note II. under Rulr XIX. 
Note ; as, She behaved exceedingly indiscreet. 

Exercises. — 1. They behaved exceedingly rudely. 2. They write re- 
markably accurately. 3. They ran astonishing swiftly. 

Note III. — If the sw&adverb cannot take the ly, and the superstd- 
verb can, this inflection must be given to the super; as, She con- 
ducts very discreetly. 

Specimen of Correcting by Note III. under Rule XIX. 
She conducts very discreet. 
The want of the ly inflection of discreet, is a violation of Note III., under 
Rule XIX. 
Note ; as, She conducts very discreetly. 

Note IV. — As the noun in the tenseless Be form is always a verb 
in relation to adverbs, the adverbs which make sense with it should 
have the same inflection which they have when they make sense with 
any other verb ; as, He was praised for the drawing of the picture 
accurate^. [Not accurate."] 

Specimen of Correcting by Note TV. under Rule XIX. 
(In the writing (of the letter accurate,) [he showed his grammatical skill-] 

The want of the ly inflection of accurate, is a violation of Note IV., under 
Rule XIX. 
Note — : — ; as, In the writing of the letter accurately, &c. 



148 SYNTAX. 

Exercises. — 1. [The drawing (of the papers) hasty, occasioned a serious 
difficulty.] 2. He was praised] (for the drawing (of the picture) elegant.) 
3. (In , speaking ( , , ) improper) [teachers set ( , their pupils) 
bad examples.] 4. (By , constructing ( , sentences) (in general,) in- 
accurate) [those , (who write grammars) demonstrate a want] (of skill,) 
(which renders them incompetent to improve Murry.) 5. (Tn , memo- 
rizing ( , the old theory) (of grammar,) even thorough) [the pupil does 
not become] (a grammarian.) 

Note V. — Where before can be substituted for previous, previous 
is not an adjective, but an adverb, and it should end in ly ; as, 
" and had been employed be/ore." 

But, then, if before is used, the section which follows is sentensic ; 
as, (" and had been employed before) (the discovery , , .) 

Whereas, if previously is used, the section which follows, is insen- 
tensic; as, ("and had been employed previously') (to the discovery.") 

Before. — [The creation (of the world) had taken place before] (the 
flood , , .) 

Previously. — [The creation (of the world) had taken place previ- 
ously] (to the coming) (of the flood.) 

Before. — [Man had fallen before ( Christ died) (for man's sins.) 

Previously. — [Man had fallen previously] (to the death) (of Christ) 
(for man's sins.) 

Is the following good, or bad English. 

" Henry Hudson was by birth an Englishman, but had been for 
some time previous to, and at the time of the discovery, employed in 
the service of the Dutch East India Company/' 

As previous is an adverb that can take ly, it should have the ly inflection; 
as, "and had been employed previously." 

Kule XX. — Every suhadjective should end in ly if 
the word can take this inflection ; as, Henry was ex- 
ceeding??/ careful, He was unusual??/ good. 

Exercises. — 1. (Unto us) [are given exceeding great promises.] 2. [It 
is] (remarkable fine weather.) 

Note I. — Where the subadjective can be incorporated with its 
super by a hyphen, (-) it should not have the ly inflection; as, a 
new-fashioned hat. 

Specimen of Correcting by Note I. under Rule XX. 

1. This is an odd&/ constructed house. 
The ly inflection of odd, is a violation of Note I. under Rule XX. 
Note ; as, [This is] (an odd constructed house. ^ 



SYNTAX. 149 

Exercises. — 1. [Man is] (a nobly minded being.) 2. A newly fashioned 
hat. 3. [He is] (a highly minded man.) 4. A roundly shaped apple. 5. 
A squarely formed figure. 6. An oddly fashioned house. 

Rule XXI. — The nominative pronoun which has a 
nominative form, should be used in this form ; as, He 
writes, She laughs, [/ speak] (of Washington) (than 
who , , ) (no man (of his time) was greater) 
(in the field.) 

Not Him writes ; not her laughs ; not me speaks ; not than whom.* 

' Specimen of Correcting by Rule XXI. 
1. Rim writes. 
The use of him for he, is a violation of Rule XXI. 
Rule ; as, He writes. 

Exercises. — 1. Them are sick. 2. Us are well. 3. Ourselves went. 4. 
Me will go. 5. (Her being absent,) [she was sent for.] 6. [Whom spoke] 
(to me?) [Him , ] (and her , both.) 7. Whom answered them? 
[Me , , .] 8. Who spilled the ink ? [Him , , .] 9. Who made 
the pen? [Me , , .] 10. Whom wrote the letter ? [Her , , .] 
11. [Me will now speak] (of Washington Irving) (than whom , ) (a better 
writer cannot be found.) 12. [Him , ] (and me went.) 13. Thee must 
remain. 14. Thyself must go. 15. Herself shall see it. 16. Thyselves are 
here. 

Rule XXII. — Objective verbs require the objective 
form of the objective pronouns which have this form ; 
as, James saw us, Whom did the boys call ? not, James 
saw we — not, Who did the boys call ? 

Remarks. — In deciding whether a final verb is nominative, or 
objective, it may be of use to the learner to know that objective verbs, 
in general, may be abridged, deprived of their objective character by 
the use of some form of Be. And that he may derive all the ad- 
vantage from this fact, which a familiar acquaintance with it will 
afford him, it may be well to style the verbs which are abridged of 
their natural power to make sense with objective nouns, and pro- 
nouns, 

Abridged Nominative Yerbs. — The abridged nominative verb 

* Than whom, is no better than, him is — no better than whom was. 

He, or who, should be used instead of whom. If who is used, the section given by than should 
not close the sentence; as, I saw Johnson daily, (than who , , ) no man ever treated me- 
better. 

But if he^ which is the better word, should be used, the section given by than should close 
the period ; as I saw Johnson daily ; and no man ever treated me better than he , , . 



150 SYNTAX. 

is one that is naturally objective; but which, by the precession of some 
form of Be, is deprived of its natural power to make sense with an 
objective noun, or pronoun; as, A letter must be written ; The water 
was drunk ; The work has been done ; The apple is eaten ; The girl 
was named ( , , , ) ( , Jane ;) These children 
have been taught ( , English grammar.) 

Note. — When the verb which is naturally objective, ends in the tenseless Be 
form, it cannot be abridged of its natural power to make sense with objective 
nouns, and pronouns ; as, I am writing a letter; Stephen was drinking water ; 
John will soon be doing the work ; Charles is eatrn^ apples ; They are nam- 
ing the girl after her aunt ; They have been teaching English grammar. 

Specimen of Correcting by Rule XXII. 
1. He saw i". 
The use of / for me, is a violation of Eule XXII. 
Rule ; as, He saw me. 

Exercises. — 1. Who do you see ? 2. Who did he employ ? 3. They have 
called he. 4. [John called she,] (he,) (they,) (thou,) (and I) (to the house.) 
6. [He is] (a pupil) (who it is impossible to teach.) 6. [Who would you 
suggest] (as a fit person) (for that station.) 7. [It is] (I) (who they wish 
to see. 

Remark. — It is not easy for beginners to manage constructions 
like the following : 

1. Who do people say that I am ? *■■ 

2. He is the person whom they say Mr. Johnson taught. 

But by breaking such sentences into sections, the pupil, and many 
of our translators of the Scriptures, may find some aid in correcting 
bad English. 

The trunk : [Do people say that f\ 

Branches : ( Who) (I am ?) 

The trunk : [He is] 

-p , ( {the person) (whom Mr. Johnson taught) 
urancnes : j -^ gfl ^j 

Kule XXIII. — Prepositions require the objective form 
of the pronouns which have this form ; as, Of whom 
did he speak ? John called for us, Charles took that 
man for'wie. 

Specimen of Correcting by Rule XXIII. 

1. Of who did you speak ? 

The use of who, is a violation of Rule XXIII. 
jto^E ; as, Of whom did you speak ? 



SYNTAX. 



151 



Exercises. — 1. (Who [do you speak] to) (Nancy? 2. [He called] (for 
Charles,) (John,) (and) (I.) 3. (Who [does he speak] of?) 4. (Who [did 
he give the book] to ?) 5. [He went] (with Jane,) (Hester,) (and) (I.) 6. 
(From he) (that is needy) [turn thou not away.] 7. [They took them] 
( , we.)* 8. (For me to be , ) ( , he) [there must be a great 
change.] 

Plenary — For me to be made into him, there must be a great change. 

Rule XXIY. — Certain nouns, verbs, adjectives, and 
adverbs, require certain prepositions ; as, diminution of, 
diminish from, abhorrent to. 

The following table exhibits many of the nouns, verbs, and adjectives which re- 
quire certain prepositions after them. 

Abhorrence of. 
Abhorrent to. 
Accommodate to. 
Accord to, with. 
Accuse of. 
Acquit of. 

Acting with, for, against. 
Adapted to. 



Adjudge in, to, for. 

Adjutory to. 

Adjutant to. 

Admire at, in. 

Admission of, to, into. 

Admit of, into. 

Afflictive to. 

Admonition of. 

Admittance into, of. 

Advantage of, over. 

Advised of, by. 

Admonish of. 

Adjudge of, to. 

Adverse to. 

Agreeable to. 

Amazed at. 

Admonished of, by, against. 

Approbation of, to. 

Arrived at. 

Approval of 

Ask, of, for, after. 

Astonished at. 



Aspire to. 
Averse to. 
Aversion to. 
Be at. 
Been at. 
Believe in, on. 
Bestow upon. 
Betray into. 
Boast of. 
Brag of. 
Break into. 
Call on, at, to, for. 
Charge with, on. 
Charge to, for, with. 
Compare to, with. 
Compliance with. 
Concur with, in, on. 
Confide in. 
Conformable to. 
Consonant to. 
Contrary to. 
Conversant in, with. 
Correspond to, with. 
Correspondent to. 
Correspondence with, to 
Copy after, from. 
Cut into, in, with, &c. 
Caution against. 
Change into, to. 
Confused with, by. 



* I thought it ( , him.) Not he. 

Thought is used in the sense of took — and for is understood before him. 

I took it for him. 

I thought it to he ( , him.) Not he. 

For is sometimes used in the sense of the phrase, in the character of; as, I took him for a 
gentleman; He took this note for good money; He was taken up for dead. 

Unless the half section changes the sense of the proposition entirely, for is understood when 
the halfsection is expressed; as, I took him to be a gentleman. That is, I took him for a gen- 
tleman to he. 



152 



SYNTAX. 



Claim to, on, upon, against. 

Convicted of, by. 

Debtor, to, for. 

Dependent upon. 

Deprive of. 

Derogation from. 

Derogative to. 

Derogatory to. 

Desire of, for. 

Die of, by, with. 

Dislike to. 

Differ with, from, in. 

Difficulty in y with. 

Diminish from. 

Diminution of 

Disappointed in, of. 

Disapprove of. 

Discourage from. 

Discouragement to. 

Dissent from. 

Defalcation from. 

Dangerous to, for. 

Defamatory to. 

Default of. 

Defiance to, of. 

Deflux of. 

Defluxion from. 

Delay of, from, in by. 

Demand of, on, upon, against. 

Destructive of, to. 

Detach from. 

Detachment of, to. 

Deter from. 

Detract from. 

Detraction of. 

Detractive to, of. 

Detention of, in, by. 

Deterge from. 

Different from. 

Displeasing to. 

Eager in. 

Easy for. 

Enmity to. 

Engaged in, for, at. 

Equal with, to. 

Exception to, at, against. 

Expert at, in. 

Entrance to, into. 

Enter into. 

Entrust to, with, for. 

Fall under. 

Familiar with, to. 

Foundation of, for. 



Free from, of. 

Friend of, to. 

Friendly to. 

Glad at, of. 

Hatred to, of. 

Hope of, for. 

Incorporate with, into. 

Independent of, on, upon. 

Indulge in, with. 

Insist upon. 

Introduce to, into. 

Introduction to, into. 

Introductive to. 

Intrude upon, into 

Inferior to, in. 

Invite into, in. 

Key to, of. 

Limited to. 

Live on, upon. 

Made of, from. 

Marry to. 

Martyr for. 

Model of. 

Need of 

Necessity of, for. 

Necessary to, for 

Offensive to. 

Offend against. 

Offence at, to. 

Pervious to. 

Place in, to, by, for, with, at. 

Plan of, for. 

Prevail on, upon, over, against, in 

Prejudice against, of. 

Profit in, by. 

Protect against, from. 

Provide for, with. 

Permission of. 

Permeable to. 

Previous to. 

Predicated of. 

Placed in, to, by, for, with, at. 

Preventive of, against. 

Put into, in, to. 

Pleased with, by. 

Pleasing to, in, 

Prior to. 

Purchased at, in, for, by. 

Reconcile with, to. 

Reduce to, under, in, from. 

Receive at, to. 

Reflect on, upon. 

Regard to, in. 



SYNTAX. 



153 



Replete with. 

Resemblance to, of, between. 

Resolved on. 

Rule over. 

Reproved of, for, at, in, by. 

Right of, to. 

Reside at, in. 

Same with. 

Secretary of, to. 

SmMinto, beneath, under. 

Sick of, with. 

Sold at, in, by, for, above. 

Split in, into, for, by, with. 

Surprised at. 

Suited to. 

Suitableness to. 

Suitable for. 



Swerve from. 

Taste of for. - 

Tax for, with. 

Testimony of, against, for. 

Think on, of, with, upon. 

True to. 

Tendency to. 

Value on, upon, of 

Vested with, in. 

Wait on, upon. 

Worthy of. 

Walk in, into. 

Warn against. 

Warning against, of, by. 

War with, against. 

Wish of, for. 

Witness to, of, for, against. 



OBSERVATIONS. 

1. Accord to, Accord with. 

When accord signifies to adjust one thing to another, it requires to ; as, 
Her hands accorded the music of the lute to that of the voice. 

But when accord signifies to agree, to be in correspondence, it requires 
with ; as, His words accord with the truth. 

2. Inquire of, Inquire for, Inquire after. 

We inquire, or ask for a book. We ask of a person after something of 
Which we desire to hear. 

3. Call on, Call at. 

We call on a person — but we call at a house. 

4. Charge with, Charge upon. 

We charge a person with a crime — but we charge the error in the account 
on our attorney. 

5. Compare to, Compare with. 

When we attempt to illustrate one thing by another, we compare one thing 
to another ; as, Christ is compared to a lamb. 

But, when the idea is nothing more than a resemblance in some quality, 
we say compared with; as, These small galleys cannot be compared with our 
tall ships. •" 

6. Concur with, Concur in, Concur on. 

We say, they concur with each other in opinion, on this subject. Hence, 
with, in, and on, may follow concur. 

7. Conversant with, Conversant in. 

We say, Henry is conversant with men — not, in men. But we say, Henry 
is conversant in the arts — not, with the arts. 

8. Cop y from, Copy after. 

We say, he copies from nature — not after nature. But we say, he copies 
after, not from, his father. 

7* 



154 SYNTAX. 

9. Correspond to, Correspond with. 

When correspond signifies to keep up an intercourse with another by let- 
ter ; we say with; as, I have corresponded with my brother for several years 
on this subject. 

But, when correspond means to agree in one, or more respects, we use to ; 
as, These books correspond to mine with regard to the amount of goods sold. 

10. Died of, Died by. 

We say, he died of the consumption. But we do not say, he died of, but, 
by a fall — not, of, but, by the sword. 

11. Differ with, Differ from. 

When men dispute, and wrangle, we say, they differ with one another. 
But, when they disagree in opinion, we say, they differ from one another. 

12. Equal to, Equal with. 

We say, he is equal to — not, with, the undertaking. But, we say, they 
made the aged equal in spoils with — not, to, themselves. 

13. Exception to, Exception at, Exception against. 

We say, there is an exception to this rule. When opposition is made, 
against may be used ; as, They made exceptions against this argument. 

When dislike appears to accompany the objectien, take is generally used ; 
as, He took exceptions at my last remark. In this case, exceptions may be 
followed by at, to, or against ; as, Why should he take exception at this re- 
mark ? To take exception to my remark, because it is severe, is to take an 
exception against me. " Roderigo, thou hast taken against me an excep- 
tion. ' ' — Shakspeare. 

14. Indulge with, Indulge in. 

If the matter of indulgence is not a habit, we use with ; as, He indulged 
himself with a glass of wine. But, if the matter of indulgence is a habit, we 
use in ; as, Henry indulges in over-eating. 

15. Introduce to, Introduce into. 

We say of a man, he was introduced to the President. But, we say of a 
book, it was introduced into school. It is important to introduce good habits 
into children. 

16. Introduction to, Introduction into. 

The introduction of the President to the company. The introduction of 
these goods into America. 

17. Intrude upon, Intrude into. 

He intruded himself upon the ground. He intruded into the room. 

18. Prevail on, Prevail upon, Prevail over, Prevail against, Pre- 

vail in. 

When prevail signifies to persuade, we use with, on, or upon; as, I wish 
that I could prevail with you to return to Boston; He prevailed on me to 
accompany him ; The glass had a charm which prevailed upon him to break 
his temperance vow. 

But, when prevail signifies to overcome, to subdue, to get the advantage, 



SYNTAX. 155 

we use over, or against ; as, " David prevailed over, the Philistine with a 
sling, and a stone ;" England will not prevail against America. 

When prevail signifies to extend over with influence, we use in ; as, The 
fever prevailed in a great part of the city. 

19. Protect against, Protect from. 

We protect ourselves against the rain. But, we protect others from the 
rain. 

20. Reconcile to, Reconcile with. 

We say, we will attempt to reconcile these persons to each other. But, 
we do not say, we will undertake to reconcile his statement to the truth. 
Here, with should be used; as, We will reconcile his statement with the 
truth of the case. 

21. To Reduce under, Reduce to. 

When reduce means to subdue, we use under ; as, England would be glad 
to reduce us under her control. But, when reduce signifies to take from one 
condition to another, we use to ; as, He would be glad to reduce these rocks 
to powder ; Can he reduce whole numbers to fractions with perfect ease ? 
He is reduced to a skeleton. 

22. Disappointed of Disappointed in. 

When we are disappointed in obtaining a thing, we use of— but when in 
the quality, or character of a person, or thing, we use in. 

Discouragement, according to the sense, may have of, by, in, or with. 

Glad, may have of, or at, but not on. 

Difference, may have among, between, or betwixt, but rarely of. 

Failed, requires in, or of, according to the sense j as, He failed in his 
business, because he failed of collecting his demands. 

Specimen of Correcting by Rule XXIV., and by the, Table. 

1. [I arrived] (in the city) ( , yesterday.) 
The use of in for at, is a violation of Rule XXIV. 
Rule ; as, [I arrived] (at the city) (yesterday.) 

Exercises. — 1. [I arrived] (in Boston) (on Monday.) 2. [He was ac- 
cused] (for this crime.) 3. [My abhorrence (at the man) is great.] 4. 
[He was acquitted] (from the charge.) 5. [This system is not adapted] (for 
children.) 6. [He has come agreeably] (with his promise.) 7. [I have an 
aversion] (for all kinds) (of vice.) 8. [He bestows encomiums] (to the 
work.) 9. [Stephen boasts] (about his goodness.) 10. [He brags] (about 
his activity.) 11. [Thomas broke the stick] (in two.) 12. [James called 
(upon me) very early.] 13. [Do they confide] (to each other?) [Yes, some 
have great confidence] (for others.) 14. [I am not conversant] (with Greek.) 
15. [He acted conformably] (with his instruction.) 16. [This rule is conso- 
nant] (with reason.) 17. [Examples] (corresponding) (with the number) 
(in the preceding list.) — Waterman's English Grammar. 18. Rule V. cor- 
responding with Murray's Rule V. — R. O. Smith's English Grammar, page 
130. 19. [I still correspond] (to my friend,) (by letter.) 20. [His compli- 
ance (to his brother's proposition,) injured me.] 21. [James cut the quill] 
(in three pieces.) 22. [William is dependent] (to me) (for money.) 23. 
[He will resent any derogation] (of his good name.) 24. [He wrote this 



156 SYNTAX. 

letter] (with moonlight) (by a poor pen.) 25. [They differ] (with each 
Other) (in opinion.) 27. [Any diminution (from the original sum) (will dis- 
please them.) 28. [He was disappointed] (of his goods;) (for they were 
damaged.) 29. [I was disappointed] (in money.) 30. [I am glad (for an 
opportunity) to do good.] 31. [There is a difference] (of writers) (on this 
subject.) 32. [He failed] (in collecting) (his money;) (and, consequently, 
he failed) (of his business.) 33. (From this Rule) [there are a number] (of 
exceptions.) — P. Bullions' s English Grammar, page 129. 34. (And always 
to omit a relative when) (of the nominative case.) — P. Pullions's Grammar, 
page 130. 

Rule XXY. — The same prepositions which follow 
the primitive word, generally follow the derivative ; as, 
Derive from, Derivation from ; Friend to, Friendly to. 

Note I. — Where the idea is mere acquaintance, of should be used 
after friend ; as, He was a friend of mine. 

But, when the idea is real friendship, or genuine affection, to should 
be used ; as, He is a friend to the poor ; They have long been friends 
to me ; Washington was a friend to his country. 

Note II. — Although, generally, the same preposition which follows 
the promitive word, follows the derivative, yet we say diminish 
from ; but diminution of— and sometimes friend of; but in all cases 
friendly to. 

Note III. — One noun should not be subjoined to another, unless 
both will admit the same preposition ; as, This is a rule, and guide to 
his conduct. 

Now, as we cannot say rule to, the construction of the sentence 
should be changed, that each noun may have its proper preposition; 
as, This is a rule of and a guide to, his conduct. 

Note IV. — Between, and betwixt, should be used where there are 
but two things — among, and amongst, where there are more than two ; 
as, Between these two, there is great contention ; but among these 
three, there is great harmony. 

Note V. — When we are disappointed in obtaining a thing, we use 
of; as, They have been disappointed of money. 

But, when we possess the thing, and the quality does not come 
up to our expectations, we use in ; as, They are disappointed in these 
silks. 

Note VI. — During should be used only where the event continues 
through all the period which is mentioned ; as, I have written letters 
during the day. 

Invite, Put, Split, Took, Wallc, Key. 

1. Invite, when the section shows where the invitation is given, requires 
in ; as, He invited me in the street, to call at his house. 



SYNTAX. 157 

2. Invite, when the section shows to what place one is invited, requires 
into, or to ; as, He invited me into his house; They invited her to our house. 

3. In may be used as an adverb ; as, He invited me in. 

4. Put, when the section shows where the act is done, requires in ; as, He 
put his hand upon me, in this room. 

5. Put, when the section shows into what something is put, requires into ; 
as, He put the dollar into his pocket. 

6. Split, when the section shows where something is split, requires in ; as, 
He split the log in the cellar. 

7. Split, when the section shows the division itself of a thing, requires into; 
as, He split the log into two. 

8. Took, requires in as an adverb ; as, They took the stranger in. 

9. Took, requires into as a preposition ; as, He took the book into his 
hands. 

10. Walk, when the section intimates the leaving of one place for another, 
requires into ; as, He walked into the house. 

11. Walk, when the section shows where the action is done without inti- 
mating the leaving of one place for another, requires in; as, He walks in his 
own room. 

"12. Walk, requires in as an adverb ; as, Will you walk in, sir ? 

13. Key, when the noun denotes a, part of a thing, requires of; as, This is 
the key of that lock. 

14. Key, when the thing mentioned, is presented as a kind of guide, or 
clue, requires to ; as, This event furnishes a key to all the secrets in the 
case. 

Rule XXYI. — If the pronoun which constitutes 
the predicate section, has a nominative form, it should 
he used in its nominative form ; as, [It is] (I,) [It was] 
(she,) [It is said to he] (he,) [It was ] {they,) [I am] 
(he.) 

Remark. — This Rule is sustained from the consideration that the 
nominative form of the pronouns which indicate their nominative 
power by their form, is the natural state of the words. The nomina- 
tive form being their natural state, the words, as a matter of course, 
should retain this form in every instance where there is no other 
word which requires them to change it for an objective form. No 
word except an objective verb, and a preposition, has any power to 
demand this exchange — hence, if neither of these words belongs to 
the section, the pronoun should retain its nominative form, even while 
it surrenders its nominative power. In conformity to the doctrine 
of this Rule, we say, 

1. It is (they.) Not, it is them. 

2. The man is (I.) Not, he is me. 

3. (Who) do people say I am? Not, vihom. 

4. Do people say (who) (I am?) Not, whom. 



158 _ SYNTAX. 

Specimen of Correcting by Rule XXVI. 

1. [It is] (me.) 

The use of me for I t is a violation of Rule XXVI. 
Rule ; as, [It is] (I.) 

Exercises. — 1. [They, thought that] (it was) (me.) 2. [We think that" 
(it was) (them.) 3. [Is this] (her?) [It is not] (her.) 4. [Was that" 
(him?) [It was] (me.) 5. (Whom) [is the teacher?] [That man is 
(him.) 6. (By whom) [has he been called] (him?) [He has been called 
(him) (by all.) 7. [It was not] (me) — (it was) (him.) 8. [Be composed 
— (it is) (me.) 9. [You may well be afraid] — (it is) (me.) . 10. Who made 
the disturbance? [It was] (John,) (and) (him.) 11. [Was it] (him,) (or 
, , ) (her ? 

Rule XXVII. — No word which is an adjective with- 
out ly should have this inflection where the word is 
used as an adjective ; as, Henry's conduct was man- , 
ful/?/, His demeanour was conformabZ?/ to the rules of 
modest behaviour, Is your tea agreeably to your taste. 

Eule XXVIII. — An adjective of the uni numerdic- 
tion, requires a noun, or pronoun of the same numer- 
diction ; as, This man. (Not, this men.) Each book. 
(Not, each books.) That -pen. (Not, that pens.) The 
second and third edition. (Not, the second, and third 
editions. 

Specimen of Correcting by Rule XXYIII. 

1. This men. 
As men is plus, and the super of this, the use of this is a violation of Rule 
XXVIII. 

Rule ; as, This man. 

Note. — A subadjective of the uni numerdiction requires a principal of the 
same numerdiction ; as, This man's son's ; One boy's books. 

Exercises. — 1. [This men went] (to the city.) 2. [The fourth, (and 
fifth men) were lost.] 3. [The second, (and third books) are his , .] 4. 
[It is believed] (that) (the tenth, (and eleventh editions) have been greatly 
improved.) — Kirkham's Grammar. 

Rule XXIX. — An adjective of the plus numerdic- 
tion, requires a noun, or pronoun of the same numer- 
diction; as, These men. (Not, these man.) Those 
pens. (Not, those pen.) 



SYNTAX. 159 

Specimen of Correcting by Rule XXIX. 

1. Those boy must be quiet. 
As boy is the super of those, and uni, it is a violation of Rule XXIX. 
Rule ; as, Those boys must be quiet. 

Note. A subadjective of the plus numerdiction requires its principal to be 
of the same numerdiction ; as, These men's sons ; Two boys' books. 

Exercises. — 1. [I have bought six pound] (of butter.) 2. [He purchased 
four cord] (of wood ) 3. [The cars travel] (sixteen mile) (in an hour.) 4. 
[Fifty pound (of wheat) contain forty pound] (of flour.) 5. [The tree is 
,,,)(, a hundred foot high.] 

Rule XXX. — When there is no comparison, 
as when there is but one thing, or but one collection 
mentioned, the adjective should have its absolute 
indication; as, Bed bird, *Red birds, Good man, Fine 
schools. 

Specimen of Correcting by Rule XXX. 
1. A redder bird. 

As there is but one bird mentioned, the use of the bi-relative indication ia 
a violation of Rule XXX. 

Rule - ; as, red bird. 

Exercises. — 1. A better man. 2. A larger apple, 3. The darkest night. 
4. A brighter light. 5. The older person. 6. A greater mountain. 

Rule XXXI. — When but two things, or but two 
collections are compared, the adjective should have the 
bi-relative indication ; as, This bird is redder than that, 
That school is better than this. 

Specimen of Correcting by Rule XXXI. 

1. This is the largest man of the two , 

As there are but two men mentioned, the use of the tri-relative indication 
is a violation of Rule XXXI. 

Rule ; as, This is the larger man of the two , 

Exercises. — 1. This hat is the blackest , of the two , . 2. He is 
the tallest , of the two , . 3. This , is the best school of the two 
, . 4. He chose the last of the two , . 5. I was much the sickest of 
the two , . 6. Stephen has two sisters, the oldest of whom is the best 
reader. 7. The oak, and the willow attempted to decide which was the 
strongest. — Fable. 



160 SYNTAX. 

Rule. XXXII. — When as many as three things, or 
three collections are compared, they must all be of the 
same kind, and the adjective should have the tri-rela- 
tive indication ; as, This bird is the reddest of the four, 
This is the best school of the three. 

Specimen of Correcting by Rule XXXII. 
1. I am the taller of the three persons. 
As there are three persons mentioned, the use of the bi-relative indication, 
is a violation of Rule XXXII. 

Rule ; as, I am the tsiihst of the three. 

Exercises. — 1. This is the better pen of the three. 2. Which is the best 
reader, Jane, Hester, or Susan ? 3. The Indian is the older , of the four 
, . 4. Blackhawk was the more sagacious , of any other Indian in his tribe. 

Kule XXXIII. — Pronoun^ of the subjective indica- 
tion agree with their principals in indication, numer- 
diction, and genediction ; as, Mother had seen James 
before she called him. 

Note I. — In many instances where the collective name is employed, 
the pronoun is used for the noun, members, implied; as, the jury will 
remain out till they shall have agreed on a verdict, (they.) 

The pronoun, they, in this instance is not used for the noun, jury, 
but for the noun, members, implied. The true idea is clearly this : 
the jury will remain out till its members shall have agreed on a ver- 
dict. 

Note II. — When the mind does not divide the assemblage into its 
several parts, the pronoun is used, not for the noun, members, but for 
the collective name of the assemblage ; as, A committee was appointed, 
and it made a report on the subject, (it.) 

Here the pronoun, it, is used for the collective name, committee, ex- 
pressed. 

Specimen of Correcting by Rule XXXIII. 
1. [I offered (John) a knife ;] (but they would not take it.) 
The use of they for he, is a violation of Rule XXXIII. • 

Rule ■ ; as, [I offered (John) a knife ;] (but he would not 

take it. 

Exercises. — 1. [No person is fully satisfied] (that) (they will not be de- 
ceived.) 2. [The minds (of men) are active]- — (it must have something to 
work) (on.) 3. [Each (of them) received the amount] (to which) (they were 
entitled) (by law.) 4. [I gave him oats,] (but they would not eat it.) 5. 
[I gave the horse hay,] (but they would not eat them.) 6. [ I gave the 



SYNTAX. 161 

horse grass,] (but he did not eat them.) 7. [I gave the ox spires] (of grass,) 
(but he did not eat it.) 8. [The jury will continue out till] (it shall have 
agreed) (on a verdict.) 9. [The council was not unanimous;] (and it sepa- 
rated) (without coming) (to any determination.^ 10. [The enemy was not able 
to support the charge,] (and he fled.) 11. [The defendant's counsel had a 
difficult task] (imposed upon it ) 12. [The family is not so well pleased] 
(with its situation) (as it would like to be.) 

EXERCISES UNDER NOTE II. 

13. [The crowd is so great] (that I cannot get) (through them.) 14. 
[The company was very small] (at first ;) (but they increased daily.) 15. 
[The school is quite large now;] (and they will grow larger.) 16. [The 
third flock (of sheep) is fed ;] (but they are not watered ) 17. [The com- 
mittee was divided] (in sentiment ;) (and they referred the business) (to a 
general meeting.) 

Rule XXXIV.^ — Indefective pronouns of the forma- 
tive indication agree with their nouns, in numerdiction, 
and genediction only ; as, I, Paul beseech the Corin- 
thians. (/.) 

Note I. — Defective pronouns of the formative indication agree 
with the pronouns for which they are used, in indication, numerdic- 
tign, and genediction, as, [I (who am) (Paul) beseech the Corin- 
thians.] (who.) 

Note II. — The formative functionary of the sentence, may include 
with himself, those that take no part it its formation ; as, " He will 
show you a large upper room furnished, and prepared ; there make 
ready for us." (John, James, others, and / went to church where 
we saw many of our old friends, (us, we.~) 

Note III. — Where there are two principals, the defective pronoun 
relates to, and is used for, the principal which is nearer the pronoun; 
as, [He is] (the man) (who commands you.) [I (who command you) 
am] (the man.) 

In the first, who relates to, and is used /or the noun, man; in the 
second, who relates to, and is used for, the indefective pronoun, I. 

In the first, who is subjective, uni, and masculin by imputation. 

In the second, who is formative, uni, and masculinhj imputation. 

Note IV. — Nominative pronouns which are propertied by impu- 
tation, require the same form in the verb, which nominative nouns, 
or pronouns require, that have their properties in themselves; as, I 
who command, I am the man who commands. 

In the first, who, like /, cuts off the s inflection from command. 
In the second, who, like man, gives the s inflection to command 
(I command; man commands.) 



162 SYNTAX. 

EXERCISES UNDER NOTE IV. , RULE XXXIV. 

1. [I am] (the man) (who command you.) 2. [I am] (a person) (who 
adopt that sentiment ;) (and maintain it.) 3. [Thou art] (a person) (who 
possesses bright parts;) (but who hast cultivated them) (very little.) 4. 
[I am] (a man) (who speak but seldom.) 5. [Thou art] (the friend) (that 
hast often relieved me ;) (and thou hast not deserted me) (in time) (of pecu- 
liar need.) 6. [I am] (the boy) (that write your letters.) 7. [You are] 
(the boy) (who pick my apples.) 

Eule XXXY. — Indefective pronouns of the selfsub- 
ject indication agree with their auditive nouns in nu- 
merdiction, and genediction ; as. Master, I have brought 
my son unto thee. And he sendeth forth two of his 
disciples, and saith unto them, Go ye into the city. 
(thee ye.) 

Remark. — Here the pronoun, ye, is used for the auditive noun, 
disciples, understood ; as, disciples, go ye into the city. 

Note I. — Defective pronouns of the selfsubject indication agree in 
indication, numerdiction, and genediction with the indefective pro- 
nouns for which they are used ; as, [Thou (who art good) shouldst 
continue so.] 

Remarks. — The following remarks are worthy of a carejut perusal — hence the 
learner cannot do better than to memorize them. 

1. " Master, /have brought unto thee my son which hath a dumb spirit." 

2. Which, as a pronoun, is not applicable to persons. Which, then, is not 
suited to the word, son. That, or who, should be used. 

Which may be either of the uni, or plus, selfsubject, or subjective, masculin, 
feminin, ambi, muo, or ne-o genediction. 

3. Who, and that, are applied to persons — which to things; as, The man 
who ; The boy that ; The book which. 

Whose is applied both to persons, and things ; as, I saw the man whose 
arm was amputated ; I have a book whose pages I have never read. 

4. That is preferred to who after an adjective of the tri- relative indication ; 
as, Washington was the greatest general that ever commanded an army. 

5. When the noun does not decide the gender, the pronoun of the mascu- 
lin genediction is preferred ; as, I saw the person when he left his seat. 
Not, I saw the person when she left her seat. 

Before attempting to correct the following , the pupil should examine 
the Remarks on Invite, Put, Split, Took, Walk, Key, &c. 

1. [This is] (the key) (to that lock.) 2. [This fact is] (a key) (of the 
true cause) (of this event.) 3. [These are] (the keys) (to that musical in- 
strument.) 4. [He put his knife] (in his pocket.) 5. [He took the book] 
(in his own hand.) 6. [They invited him] (in tLe house.) 7. [Will you 
walk] (in this room?) 8. [He broke the glass] (in fifty pieces.) 9. [They 
split the log] (in two.) 10. [Let , them , be made] (in pairs.) 



SYNTAX. 163 

Rule XXXVL— In is employed before the names 
of countries, cities, and large towns ; as I live in (not 
at) New York, They are in America, They reside in 
Philadelphia. 

Note I. — At is employed before the names of foreign cities, villa- 
ges, (whether foreign, or not,) and small towns ; As, they live at 
Rome, She resides at Springfield. 

Note II. — At is generally employed after be, when he is literally 
applied ; as, I shall be at church, They have been at church, They 
are at church (not to.) 

Examine the Rale for In, and the Notes on At. 
1. [He lives] (at New York.) 2. [They reside] (at Lancaster;) 3. [Our 
friends (who live) (at Rome) are] (at Philadelphia.) 4. [I was] (to the 
banking house) (last week.) 5. [I was] (to church) (last evening.) 6. [He 
purchased these books] (to this bookstore.) 7. [Do you think that] (you 
will be) (to home ?) 8. [Yes, I shall be] (to home) ( , to-morrow.) 9. 
[John says that] (he will be) (to singing school) (in the evening.) 

Conjunctions.' — Whether, Neither, Although, Unless, As, So, Not 

only, Both. 

1. Whether, and either, requires or; as, He is either good, or bad; It is 
not known whether he is good, or bad. 

2. Neither, requires nor ; as, He would neither do it, nor permit me to do it. 

3. Although, and though, require yet, or nevertheless ; as, Though the house 
is small, yet it is very convenient ; Although he was rich, yet for our sakes he 
became poor ; Though he desires it, nevertheless I cannot yield. 

4. As, in a comparison, requires so ; as, As your day is, so it shall be unto 
you. 

5. As, where it refers to an adjective in a comparison of equality, requires 
as : as, I think Milton as great a poet as Virgil. 

6. So, where it refers to an adjective, requires that, or as ; as, I was so 
tired that I fell asleep. 

7. As, and so, in these cases, are subadjectives. 

8. Both, requires and. Not only, requires but. 

The pupil should now examine the Remarks on the Conjunctions. — 

Exegesis. 

Exeecises. — [John is sick ;] (and his brother is well.) 
And indicates that the brother is also sick. 

1. [John is sick;] (but his brother is sick.) 2. [It is written] (that) (man 
shall not live) (by bread) ( , , , alone,) (but) (by every word) (that 
proceedeth out) (of the mouth) (of God.) 3. (Neither [John or his brother) 
was there.] 4. (Either [John or his brother) was there.] 5. [He is sick,] 
(because he needs the doctor.) 6. [He is so sick as to need a physician.] — 
Book I. page 154? 7. [I do not know] (if he will go,) (or) ( , , , stay.) 
8. [Mine is so ripe] (as yours.) 9. [I am as weak] (that) (I cannot stand.) 
10. [Not only his property, (and also his life) was] (in danger.) 11. [It is 
(neither cold,] or hot.) 12. [It is so clear] (as) (I need not explain it.) 



164 SYNTAX. 

Exercises on Set, Sit, Lie, and Lay. 

1. [I set] (with ease.) 2. [He set there] (last evening.) 3. [The book 
lays] (on the table.) 4. [The book laid] (on the table.)- 5. [Will you sit 
down?] 6. [I set]* (with ease.) 7. [I must soon lay* there.] 8. [It was 
lain] (on the table.) 9. [I set there] (last evening.] 

Eule XXXVII. — When 'present time is to be desig- 
nated, the verb should have the present tense ; as, 
David said unto Nathan, Thou art the man. Virtue 
is commendable at all times, (art, is.) 

Note I. — Present time is that, whether little, or much, which is 
represented to be in our presence ; as, this year, this age, this morn- 
ing, this evening, this moment, this day. 

That is, the day which is here, in our presence; the word, this, 
brings the day into our presence, even if it has all passed off, by this, 
it is represented to be in our presence. Present time is presence time, 
or present time is time which is represented to be presence time. Here 
art is of the present tense. David uttered thse words to Nathan long, 
very long ago; yet as present time is presence time the verb which 
indicates presence time is of the present tense. Thou art the man. 

That is, thou art the man whose identity comes within the time 
which is in David 's presence. 

Rule XXXVIII. — The verb should have the present 
tense so long as the person, or thing produces the 
same effect, or has the same being, or the same name ; 
as, What is the name of him who called on us last 
week ? Who is the lad that was here ? He says that 
brandy always makes people drunk, (is, makes.) 

Specimen of Correcting by Rule XXXVIII 

1. Father, there has been a gentleman here this morning to see you. 
What was his name, my child ? 

The use of the passed tense, was, for the present, is, is a violation of 
Rule XXXVIII. 

Rule ■ — ; as, What is his name ? 

Exercises. — 1. (Who) [was that lad] (that was here?) 2. [Was the 
man's name] (Peter,) (that has called) (this morning?) 3. [I objected] (to 
the use) (of one word,) (and he asked what word) (it was.) 4. [I replied 
that] (it was the word) (obnoxious.) 5. (What friend) [was it] (to whom 

* Hens lay, and set; but people lie, and sit. 



SYNTAX. 165 

(you alluded?] 6. [It was] (my friend) (Mr. Jones.) 7. (What story) [was 
it] (that you were reading ?) 8. [He took the position] (that) (brandy al- 
ways made people drunk.)' 9. (Who) [was he] (that came to see you (a few 
hours) ago.) 10. [It was] (my brother) ( , , ) (John.) 11. [Was he 
not] (the man) (that was a candidate) (for our next governor ?) He was 
not. 12. [The Doctor said that] (fever always produced thirst.) 

What day will to-morrow be ? 

The diversity of opinion among teachers, respecting the tense which the 
verb in this, and similar instances, should have, seems to require an observa- 
tion, or two. 

1. Wat day is to-morrow ? What day will to-morrow be ? 

That the verb should have the present tense, is obvious from the conside- 
ration that he who asks the question, means to inquire which of the seven 
names that are applied to the different days in the week, is applied to that 
portion which follows the day on which he puts this question. 
' He intends to ask nothing but this : — 

By what name have men agreed to designate that portion of time which 
follows this day ? « 

1. To-morrow is Thursday. 2. To-morrow will be Thursday 

That is, that portion of time which follows Wednesday, is called Thursday. 
That day which follows Wednesday, is already, is now named Thursday. 

Rule XXXIX. — When the thing spoken of, is not 
now, but has been in being, and has received a fixed 
name, and it may be fairly presumed that the question 
is by what certain name men have already agreed to 
call this thing, the verb should have the present tense ; 
as, to morrow is Monday. (Not, will be Monday.) 

Rule XL. — When the thing spoken of, is not 
now, but has been in being, and has no fixed name, 
and it may be fairly presumed that the question is 
ivhat certain name men will apply to this thing, the 
verb should have the future tense ; as, That time will 
be called Saturday. 

Rule XLI. — When the sentence is formed within 
the expressed, or implied period of middle present time, 
the verb should have the middle-present tense ; as, I 
have written a letter to-day ; I have never drunk better 
water ; I have seen him twice in my life. [See pages 
50,51.] 



166 SYNTAX. 

Specimen of Correcting by Rule XLI. 
[I wrote] (to my brother) (to-day.) 
The passed tense of write, is a violation of Rule XLI. 
Rule ; as, [I have written] (to my brother) (to-day.) 

Exercises. — 1. [I saw my uncle Thomas] (in market) (this morning.) 
2. [Mr. Jones made a thousand dollars] (this year.) 3. (John,) [did you 
6ee the book yet ?] 4. [Did you see your sister since] (you have been) (in 
Boston?) 5. [I purchased this book] (this evening.) 6. [I spoke (with my 
brother) since] (I came out.) 7. [Will you go,] (James ?) [No—] [I con- 
cluded to remain] (at home.) 

Rule XLII. — When the time has all passed off 
before the sentence is formed, the verb should have 
the passed tense; as, I wrote a letter yesterday; I 
never drank better water while I was in Europe ; I 
saw Washington twice in his life. 

Specimen of Correcting by Rule XLII. 

I have made out very well last year. 
The middle-present tense, is a violation of Rule XLII. 
Rule ; as, I made out very well last year. 

Exercises. — 1. He has seen her last week in Philadelphia. 2. I have 
bought this pencil last year. 3. Henry has gone to school, last week. 4. 
He hath been in Maine, last year. 5. She has written to my brother a num- 
ber of times while I was in Boston. 6. While I was writing this work, I 
have prepared another for the press. 

Kule XLIII. — When the time had all passed off 
before the sentence is formed, and one event takes 
place before another, the verb which expresses the 
prior event, should have the prior passed tense; as, 

1. [They had dined before] (I arrived.) 2. [I had concluded to return 
before] (I got my father's letter.) 3. [God must have known the fate (of 
man) before] (he created him.) 

Specimen of Correcting by Rule XLIII. 

I went before I got the letter. 
The passed tense of go, is a violation of Rule XLIII. 
Rule ; as, I had gone before I got the letter. 

Exekcises. — 1. Joseph wrote his copies before school commenced. 2. 
Jane learned her lesson before she went to school. 3. God created the earth 
before he formed man. 4. I was in business a number of years before my 
brother's return. 5. They saw me twice at my own house before I called on 
them 6. He finished his work before I came in. 7. I was in Reading be- 



SYNTAX. 167 

fore I went to the city. 8. I was in Pennsylvania , eighteen months be- 
fore I saw you. 9. He had the money two days before I called for it. 10. 
We knew the person before he became our friend. 11. I saw the man before 
he came to the city. 

Rule XLIV. — When the whole part of the com- 
pound section is founded upon seeing] a hope, command, 
desire, intention, or a duty, the verb in the Aa?/section 
should have the present tense ; as, 

1. I saw him , drink the wine. 2. They hoped to get a letter. 3. They 
bade him , return the books. 4. We desired to find him at home. 5. They 
meant to write last week. 6. He ought to come soon. 

Note. — This rule is clear, because the prior passed tense would denote that 
whatever is hoped for, commanded, desired, or intended, had been realized 
before even the existence of the hope, command, desire, or intention. 

Specimen of Correcting by Rule XLIV. 
I intended to have written to you last week. 
As the whole part of the compound section is founded upon an intention, 
write should have the present tense. 

Rule ; as, I intended to write to you. 

Exercises. — 1. They meant to have written last Monday. 2. We desired 
to have found him at home. 3. The teacher told us to have done these sums. 
4. They intended to have returned. 5. We hoped to have seen all the family 
happy. 6. They desired us to have gone home with them. 7. They saw us 
to have gone to school. 8. He saw me to have eat my dinner. 

Rule XLV. — When the event expressed in the 
half section happens before that expressed in the 
ivliole part of the compound section, the verb in the 
half section should have the prior passed tense ; as, 
I was delighted to have seen my brother ; He was glad 
to have paid the debt, 

Here it is clear that the seeing had -taken place before the delight 
was felt ; as ; He was delighted on Saturday to have seen his brother 
on Friday. 

It is also obvious that the payment had been made before the glad- 
ness was felt, 

Note. — Before leaving this tense of the verb in the half section, it may be 
well enough just to say that the very common, and highly authorized expression, 
he " ought to have written," is no better than " he hoped to have seen his son. 

The word ought denotes duty — written denotes an action — and have indi- 
cates that he had done the action even before the duty is represented to ex- 
ist ! He should have written, is good. 



1G8 SYNTAX. 

no Specimen of Correcting by Rule XLV. 

I was much pleased yesterday to pay the debt , the day , , , before. 

As the paying had taken place before the pleasure was felt, pay should 
have the prior passed tense. 

Rule ; as, I was much pleased yesterday to have paid the 

debt the day before. 

Exercises. — 1. I was very sorry last evening to see you sick the night , , 
, before. 2. I have been happy to-day to see you at church , last Sab- 
bath. 3. He was delighted on Saturday to see his brother on Friday. 4. 
I was much pleased , yesterday to see you the day , , , before, at 
my house.* 5. I am really sorry to see you in so much trouble, , last 
week. 6. William was hurt on Thursday to see Henry misbehave , the 
day , , , before. 7. He was much pleased on Monday to see his sister 
at his church, on Sunday. 8. He was much pleased on Wednesday to find 
her in good health the day , , before. 

Rule XLYI. — When the events in both parts of 
the section happen at the same time, both parts should 
have the present, or the whole part, the passed tense ; 
as, I am delighted to see you ; I was delighted to see 
you last evening at my house. 

Specimen of Correcting by Rule XLVI. 

I was delighted to have seen you last evening at my house. 
As both events happened at the same time, the half section should have 
the present tense. 

Rule ; as, I was delighted to see you last evening at my house. 

Exercises. — 1. I was pleased yesterday to have seen you. 2. I hope to 
have got a letter to-day. 3. I saw you to have written the letter. 4. I am 
glad to have had the money by me at this time. 5. I went to the city to 
have seen the Philadelphia Museum. 

Rule XL VII. — When the whole of the time alluded 
to in the section, falls after the formation of the sen- 
tence, the verb should have the future tense ; as, I 
shall dine at two o'clock ; I will see you again ; [We 
shall see our friends when] (the stage returns.) 

Note. — When the stage returns, we shall see our friends. 

This tense is common. But common as it is, it is not correct. It 
should be — When the stage shall have returned, we shall see our 
friends. 

* I was much pleased on yesterday to see you at my house, on the day which had come before 
yesterday came. 



SYNTAX. 169 

Specimen of Correcting by Rule XL VII. 
Henry is coming , to-morrow. 

As all the time alluded to by the verb, falls after the formation of the sen- 
tence, the future tense should be used.- 

Rtjle ; as, Henry will come on to-morrow. 

Exercises. — 1. There is no preaching at our church to-morrow. 2. He 
sees me next week on this business. 3. James, is there any lecturing in 
the city , next week ? 4. There is a public sale at that house next 
Christmas. 

Rule XL VIII. — When one portion of future time 
is represented as prior to another, the verb which ex- 
presses the event that happens in the prior portion, 
should have the prior future tense ; as, When the 
stage shall have retured, we shall see our friends ; 
We shall have dined by two o'clock ; I shall have seen 
the merchant before you will return. 

Specimen of Correcting by Rule XL VIII. 
We shall dine by two o'clock, 
As dine expresses the event that is to happen in the prior portion of time, 
the section, we shall dine, should have the prior future tense. 
Rule ; as, We shall have dined by two o'clock. 

Exercises. — 1. We shall get some news by eleven o'clock. 2. James will 
write you before next week , .3. He will send you the book before you 
want it. 4. John will call before you set out for Boston. 5. You shall see 
me again by ten o'clock. 6. When the mail returns we shall get some news.* 
7. He wiU come by four o'clock , to-morrow. 8. I shall see the man be- 
fore youTeturn. 

Remarks. — The obvious impropriety of promising in affirmative sections of 
the prior future tense, makes it improper to use will with a pronoun of the 
formative indication, or shall with one of the selfsubject, or the subjective indi- 
cation in this tense ; as, 

1. I will have dined by two o'clock. (Bad.) 

2. Thou shalt have arrived by seven o'clock. (Bad.) 

3. They shall have come before you return. (Bad.) 

As foretelling is consistent in these cases, shall should be used with /, and 
will with thou, and they, and nominative nouns ; as, 

1. I shall have dined by two o'clock. w' 

2. Thou wilt have arrived by seven o'clock. % &iuooo ■ ' 

3. They will have come before you return. ~" asm^ 

* The trunk is correct, but the sentensic branch is not. 

8 



170 SYNTAX. 

Shall, Will. 

1. In the formative indication, shall foretells only. 

2. In the self subject, and in the subjective indication, shall promises, threat- 
ens, or commands. 

3. In the self subject indication, will expresses a promise, or a resolve. 

4. In the self subject, and in the subjective indication, will generally foretells. 

EXERCISES. 
Under the Remark which is Supplemental to Rule XLVIII. 

1. I will have dined by two o'clock. 2. I will have gone to school before 
ten o'clock , , . 3. Thou sh alt have arrived by seven o'clock. 4. Thou 
ehalt have come before I want you. 5. He shall have gone by noon. 6. 
They shall have come before you return. 

Remarks. — It may be well to say here that the sections in which the 
tenseless Be form is used causatively, have no tense in themselves ; as, (He 
being) (a wise man) [we give heed] (to his counsel.) 

1. Give, in the trunk, gives the tense to being in the branch, he being — and 
as give is present, being is likewise present. 

[He being) (a wise man) [we gave heed] (to his counsel.) Here, being 
is of the passed tense. This tense is found in gave, in the trunk. 

Observation. — When what is said of a subject is true at all 
times, the verb should have the present tense; as, Virtue is com- 
mendable ; Honesty is always the better policy. 

Kule. XLIX — All adjectives made from pronouns, 
whether by derivation or application, should agree in 
numerdiction, genediction, and, generally, in indication, 
with the apostrophic adjectives with which they are 
made synonymous by application ; as, John gtow his 
brother ; The jury will remain out till its members 
have agreed on a verdict ; Can any person on his en- 
trance into life, be fully satisfied that he will not be 
deceived ? Jane came here when she got her book. 

Remarks. — 1. His, in the first sentence, is synonymous with John's. [Not, 
John.~\ 

John saw John's brother. Not, John saw John brother. 

2. Its is synonymous with Jury's. The jury will remain out till the jury's 
members have agreed on a verdict. 

3. In the third sentence, his is synonymous with person's. 

4. When and occurs, their may be used instead of his, its, and her ; as, 1 
saw John, and Charles get their books ; The book, and the pen were \was, it 
should be] moved from their proper place. 



^ 



SYNTAX. 171 

Rule L. When the idea is that the picture has been taken for the 
person as his likeness, of should be used without the adjective maker; 
as, this is a picture of the king. 

Rule LI. When the idea is that the picture is not the representa- 
tive by design, but the mere property of the person, o/and the adjec- 
tive maker should be used ; as, this is a picture of the king's , . 
That is, this is a picture of the king' s pictures. 

Note i. Great care is often necessary in deciding whether to use 
the adjective maker, or the preposition, of Nothing but the sense 
can be a safe criterion. In the following, the idea is that the picture , 
belongs to me as mere property : 

This is a picture of mine— or this is my picture. 

In the following, however, the idea is that the picture is designed to 
represent me : 

That is a picture of myself 

These instances are not introduced here, to show where the adjective 
maker should be used, but to show that there may be similar assem- 
blages of words, having meanings entirely different. 

Note ii. When the objective pronoun ending in self or selves is 
used, the adjective maker cannot be employed; as, these are the 
statements " of 'themselves ." 

Note hi. The adjective maker should not be used with any adjec- 
tive which is made from a pronoun; as, John has his own books. 
The book fell from the table, and injured its margin. (His, its) his 
is derived from the pronoun, he, and requires no apostrophe. Its is 
made from the pronoun, it} and it should not have the apostrophe. 

Rule LII. When a section is used to show in what way, or by 
what means the persons spoken of, are connected, of should be em- 
ployed ; as, He lives in the house of these two brothers (in law). I 
went to the store of John (and , , )( , , , ).( , , Co.) 

Note i. Where a branch word is used to show what certain officer 
is meant, of should be employed ; as, this is the duty of the attorney 
general. 

Note ii. The section, in law, and of Co. (company), shows in 
what way, or by what means the persons spoken of, are connected. 

Rule LIII. Where the use of the adjective maker would lead to 
a wrong relation, of should be employed ; as, the horse of the guard 
ran off with the carriage. 

Here by affixing the adjective maker, 's, to the trunk word, guard, 
the captain, contrary to the intention of the writer, is represented to 
be the captain of the horse!! ! It should be the captain of the guard. 
But it may be important to include the name, horse, in the same 
assemblage of words — if so either the adjective maker, or of may be 
used; and as, "The captain of the guard saw the guard's horse." Or 



172 SYNTAX. 

the adjective maker may be rejected, and o/used; as, the captain of 
the guard saw the horse of the guard. 

In Hart's Grammar, p. 123, I find this assemblage of words : 
" The captain of the guard's horse." 

It may be taken as tenable ground, that whenever the possession 
of property can be expressed by the use of the adjective maker, its 
possession may be expressed by the use of the preposition, of. For 
example, John's hat. The hat of John. 

And it is somewhat singular that, if the combination of words, 
" the captain of the guard's horse," is correct English, the preposi- 
tion, of, cannot be used as a substitute for the adjective maker, } s. 
But, the truth is, that this assemblage of words, is so constructed, that 
of cannot be substituted for the adjective maker, 's, which may be seen 
by attempting to express the same idea by the use of of that is 
expressed by affixing 's to guard. 

Whether Mr. Hart has taken this expression from one of the three 
hundred Grammars which have guided him in the formation of his 
own book on English grammar, I will not undertake to decide. The 
assemblage, however, resembles his title page. And I am of the 
opinion that whoever examines it with care, will conclude that this 
assemblage of words is more like the usage of the English language 
than it is like the grammar of it. 

Is not this assemblage of words similar in construction to the former 
of the following ? 

The nurse of the mother's child. 
u The captain of the guard's horse." 

Now, if the nurse is the nurse of the mother, the captain is the 
captain of the guard. But, if the nurse is the nurse of the child, 
the captain is the captain of the horse 1 1 It is the impression of Mr. 
Hart that he has represented the officer as the captain of the guard; 
but he has not done so ; for, by the laughable blunder which writers 
of his description are constantly making, he has made him the captain 
of the guard's horse 1 1 1 

I am captain of John's boat. 

Joseph is " the captain of the guard's horse." 

Now, if I am the captain of John, Joseph is the captain of the 
guard. But as I am the captain, not of John, but of his boat, Joseph 
is the captain, not of the guard, but of the horse of the guard. 

Mr. Hart says in his Grammar, p. 123, that this whole assemblage 
of words is a complex name, and that the whole assemblage is in the 
possessive case. Hence it is obvious that he makes one part of the 
horse belong to each thing mentioned in the combination. The cap- 
tain, therefore, possesses a part of this animal which actually be- 
longs to the guard. What, then, has the captain of the Philadelphia 
High School done ? He has so constructed the assemblage of words 
in which he intends to represent the horse as the property of the 
guard, that he ; not only wrests this horse from the guard, and gives 



SYNTAX. 173 

him to the captain, but lie actually represents the captain as the cap- 
tain of the horse instead of the guard ! ! ! That this assemblage of 
words is not a complex name, is obvious. 

The captain of the guard's horse went. Did the guard go ? If 
this is a complex name everything mentioned in it, must have gone ! 
The captain alone went. 

True, some Lexicographers put expressions like brother-in-law 
into their books as one word. This expression, however, cannot be 
found in the Dictionary of Doctor Webster. He did not consider it 
as one word. 

I have been informed that the relation is so close that this assem- 
blage of words, is but one word. If the closeness of the relation 
renders the assemblage one, the following assemblage of words, is but 
one word : 

The hoop of the barrel rolled. 

Are not the iioop, and the barrel as closely connected as are the 
law, and the brothers? The hoop is a part of the barrel. Is the law 
%> part of the brothers, or are- the brothers a part of the law ? J 

The truth is, that with all the light of the high school shining 
brilliantly on him, Mr. Hart does not know what a complex name is i 

The principal of the Philadelphia High School with all his lights, 
can see about as clearly into an English sentence as an owl can see in 
the day. Whether the brilliancy of the light of the High School, is 
too strong for his mental vision, or whether his mental organs, like the 
eyes of the fowl of the strix genus, is not calculated to be benefited 
by the light, I will not undertake, with my limited knowledge of 
mental optics, to decide. One thing, however, is certain, that by a 
ridiculous solecism in the title page of his G-rammar, he makes him- 
self the only member of the American Philosophical Society ! In the 
same opuscule, by an obvious one, in the^ use of old for ancient, he 
makes principles which are gray with centuries, no older than Aris- 
totle ! And under page 123, this would-be pope of the Public 
Schools, divides by a clear infraction of a law in English Gram- 
mar, the horse which he intends to give to the guard, between the 
captain of the guard, and the guard itself ! ! Nor is this series of 
the wonderful feats of this great man, all, for, by the means of the same 
infraction by which he unintentionally divides the horse between the 
captain, and the guard, he forces himself to make this officer the cap- 
tain of the horse ! ! ! For the other similar acts of this distinguished 
eolecist, see the Class Book of Criticism, Vol. II. 



174 



PROSODY. 



PART IY. 



English Prosody. 
English prosody is the part of the science of English grammar, 
which teaches the abbreviation, emphasis, and pronunciation of words y 
the accent, and quantity of syllables, the pause, and tone of the voice, 
and the figures, and style of speech. 

I. Abbreviation. 
Abbreviation is the act of shortening. Abbreviation is a letter, 
or a few letters used for an entire word; as, U. S. A. for United 
States of America, Gen. for Genesis. 



Latin. 
Ante Christum* 


A.C. 


English. 
Before Christ. 


Artium Baccalaureus 


A.B. 


Bachelor of Arts, often B.A. 


Anno Domini 


A.D. 


In the year of our Lord. 


Artium Magister 


A.M. 


Master of Arts. 


Anno Mundi 


A.M. 


In the year of the world. 


Ante Meridiem 


A.M. 


In the forenoon. 


Anno Urbis Conditae 


A.U.C. 


In the year after the building of 


Baccalaureus Divinitatis B.D. 


the city — Rome. 
Bachelor of Divinity. 


Custos Privati Sigilli 
Custos Sigilli 
Doctor Divinitatis 


C.P.S. 

C.S. 
D.D. 


Keeper of the Privy Seal. 
Keeper of the Seal. 
Doctor of Divinity. 


Exempli gratia e. g. For example. 

Regiee Societatis Socius R.S.S. Eellow of the Royal Society. 

Regiae Societatis Anti- B.S.A.S. Fellow of the Boyal Society of An- 


quariorum Socius 
Georgius Rex 
Id est 


G.R. 

i. e. 


tiquaries. 
George the King. 
That is. 


Jesus Hominum Salvator I.H.S. 


Jesus the Saviour of Men. 


Legum Doctor 


LL.D. 


Doctor of Laws. 


Messieurs, French 


Messrs. 


Gentlemen. 


Medicinse Doctor 


M.D. 


Doctor of Medicine. 


Memorise Sacrum - 
Nota Bene 


M.S. 
N.B. 


Sacred to the memory [or S.M.] 
Note well ; Take notice. 


Post Meridiem 


P.M. 


In the afternoon. 


Post Scriptum 

Ultimo 

Et Caetera 


P.S. 

Ult. 
&c. 


Postscript, something written after. 

Last, [month.] 

And the rest; and so forth. 



* The Latin of these abbreviations is inserted, not to be got by heart, but 
to show the etymology of the English ; or explain, for instance, how p. m. 
comes to mean afternoon, &c. 



PROSODY. 175 

A. Answer, Alexander. L.C.J. Lord Chief Justice. 

Acct. Account. Knt. Knight. 

Bart. Baronet. K.G. Knight of the Garter. 

Bp. Bishop. K.B. Knight of the Bath. 

Capt. Captain. K.C.B. Knight Commander of the Bath. 

Col. Colonel. K.C. Knight of the Crescent. 

Cr. Creditor. K.P. Knight of St. Patrick. 

Br. Debtor, Doctor. K.T. Knight of the Thistle. 

Do. or Ditto. The same. MS. Manuscript. 

Viz.* Namely. MSS. Manuscripts. 

Q. Question, Queen. N.S. New Style. 

R.N. Royal Navy. O.S. Old Style. 

Esq. Esquire. J. P. Justice of the Peace. 

B.V.M. Blessed Virgin Mary. R. Rex, King, or Regina, Queen. 

C.CC. Corpus Christi College. Rev. Reverend. 

Cent. Centum, a hundred. Q. Question, or Queen. 

Eg. or ex. gr. Exempli gratia, for q. d. quasi dicat, as much as to say. 

example. S. or St., Saint. 

G.R. Georgius Rex, King George. S.T.P. Sacrae Theologise Pro- 
Id. idem, the same. fessor, Professor of Divinity, 

lb. ibidem, in the same place. V. Vide, see. 

J.D. Juris Doctor, Doctor of the V.D.M. Verbi Dei Minister, Min- 

law. . ister of the word of God. 

Pen., the last but one. v. g. verbi gratia, for example. 

Per Cent., by the hundred, viz. videlicet, to wit, namely. 

The other contractions used in print, and writing, may be reduced 
to the following heads : 

1. Titles, and characters of men ; as, Abp. Archbishop, Capt. Cap- 
tain, Gent. Gentlemen, Philomath. Philomathematicus, a lover of 
the mathematics. 

2. Individual names of persons, and places ; as, Geo. George, Wm. 
William, Lon. London. * 

3. Names of the different books of the Bible; as, Gen. Genesis, 
Ex. Exodus. 

4. Names of months; as, Jan. January, Sept. September. 

5. Names of winds; as, E. East, W. West, AT. North, S. South, 
N.N.E. North-north-east. 

6. Parts of books, &c. ; as, Ch. Chapter, Sect. Section, p. page, 
pp. pages, L. line, V. verse, Ep. Epistle, Obs. observation, Sol. 
Solution. 

II. Emphasis. 

Emphasis is the stress which is laid on certain words to distinguish 
them from the rest, and make the meaning more apparent, and the 
reading, or speaking better. 

* Contracted for videlicet. 



176 PROSODY. 

III. Pronunciation. 
Pronunciation is the distinct utterance of words, and is taught by 
a Dictionary. 

IV. Accent. 

Accent is a greater force laid on one syllable than another; as, 
Surmount. 

V. Quantity. 
Quantity is the time which is occupied in uttering a syllable ; as, 
consume.* Quantity is either long, or short. 

VI. Pause. 

Pause is either a total cessation, or a short suspension of the voice; 
as, Reading makes a full man; conference — a ready man, and writing 
— an exact man.j" 

VII. Tone. 

Tone is the modulation, or the inflection of the voice, which is suited 
to the sense ; as, how bright these glorious spirits shine !f 

Versification. 

1. Prose is language which is not restrained to harmonic sound, 
nor to a fixed number of syllables. 

2. Verse, or poetry is restained to a fixed number of long, and to a 
certain number of short syllables in each line. 

3. Poety is divided into Rhyme and Blank verse. 

4. When the last sylable of every two, has the same sound, the 
poetry is Rhyme. 

5. When the last syllable of every two has not the same sound, the 
poetry is Blank verse. 

* Modern versification depends not, like the ancient Greek, and Latin on 
quantity, but mainly on accent. 

| Pauses may be divided into sentential, and poetic. Sentential pauses are 
those which are expressed by the use of the comma, semicolon, colon, and the 
period in the punctuation of a sentence. 

Poetic, or harmonic pauses relate to the rhythm of the verse. These, in cer- 
tain instances, agree with the sentential pauses. Though in general they are 
independent of the sentensic ones. The poetic pauses that are independent 
of the sentensic ones, are made in speaking, and reading where no comma, no 
semicolon, no colon, and no period is found. 

Poetic pauses may be called final, Cazsural, and Demi-ccesural. 

1. The final pause occurs at the end, even though the sense is continued to 
the following line. 

The very existence of poetry depends on the final pause where there is not 
much attention paid to close measure. Indeed, without this pause, the lan- 
guage would pine away into a sort of prose. 

2. The Cozsural pause respects nothing but the melody. 

3. The Demi-csesural is marked with one accent. (') 

"Placed' on an isthmus" of middle' state, 
A Being' darkly", and rudely' great. 



PROSODY. 177 

6. Feet* are the parts into which a verse is divided to ascertain 
whether it has its just number of syllables. 

7. Scanning in poetry is the dividing of a verse*)" into the different 
feet which compose it. 

All feet consist either of two, or three syllables, and are reducible 
to eight kinds ; four of two syllables, and four of three, as follows : 

Dissyllables. Trisyllables. 

A trochee ; as, lovely. J J A dactyle ; as, probably. *t- 
An Iambus ; became. An amphihracA ; domestic. 

A spondee ; vain man. An anapaest ; misimprove. 

A pyrrAic ; on a (bank). ij A*tribracA ; (com)fortably. 

The feet in most common use, are Iambic, TrocAaic, and Anapaestic. 

Iambic Measure. 
Iambic measure is adapted to serious subjects, and comprises verses of 
several kinds ; such as, 

1. Of four syllables, or two feet ; as, 

With rav-ish'd ears, 
The mon-arch hears. 

It sometimes has an additional short syllable, mahing what is called 
a double ending ; as, 

Upon-a moun-tain. 
Beside-a foun-tain. 

2. Of three iambics, or six syllables ; as, 

Aloft - in aw-f ul state, 
The god-like he-ro sat. 
Our hearts-no long-er l&n-guish. (An additional syllable.) 

3. Of eight syllables, or four iambic feet ; as, 

And may - at last - my wea-ry age, 
Find out the peace-ful her-mitage. 

4. Of ten syllables, or five feet ; called hexameter, heroic, or tragic 

verse; as, 

The stars - shall fade - away, -the sun-himself 
Grow dim - with age, - and na-ture sink - in years. 

* So called from the resemblance which the movement of the tongue in 
reading verse, bears to the motion of the feet in walking. 

f A single line is called a verse. In rhyme two lines are called a couplet ; 
and three ending with the same sound, a triplet. 

$ The marks over the vowels show, that a trochee consists of a long and a 
short syllable, and the iambic of & short and a long, &c. 

J^lp^In scanning verses, every accented syllable is called a long syllable ; 
even although the sound of the vowel in pronunciation be short. Thus, the 
first syllable in rav-ish'd is in scanning called a long syllable, although the 
vowel a is short. By long then is meant an accented syllable ; and by short, an 
unaccented syllable. 

8* 



178 PROSODY. 

Sometimes the last line of a couplet is stretched out to twelve syllables, 
or six feet, and then it is called an Alexandrine verse ; as, 
For thee - the land - m fra-grant flow'rs - is drest ; 
For thee - the o-cean smiles, - and smooths - her wavy breast. 

5. Of verses containing alternately four, and three feet) this is the 
measure commonly used in psalms and hymns ; as, 
Let saints - below, - with sweet-accord, 
% " Unite - with those - above, 

In so - lemn lays, - to praise - their king, 
And sing - his dy-ing love. 

jg^^ Verses of this kind were anciently written in two lines, each contain- 
ing fourteen syllables. 

Trochaic Measure. 

This measure is quick, and lively, and comprises verses, 

1. Some of one trochee, and a long syllable, and some of two trochees; 

as, 

Tumult - cease. On the - mountain, 

Sink to - peace. By a - fountain. 

2. Of two feet, or two trochees, with an additional long syllable ; as, 

In the - days of - - old, 
Stories - plainly - - told. 

3. Of three trochees, or three, and an additional long syllable ; as, 

When our - hearts are mourning. 
Lovely - lasting - peace of - - mind, 
Sweet de - light of - human - - kind. 

4. Of four trochees, or eight syllables; as, 

Now the - dreadful - thunder's - roaring ! 

5. Of six trochees, or twelve syllables; as, 

On a-mountain,-stretch'd be-neath a-hoary -willow, 
Lay a-shepherd-swain, and-view'd the - roaring-billow, 

Those trochaic measures that are very uncommon have been omitted. 

Anapaestic Measure. 

1. Of two anapaests, or two, and an unaccented syllable; as, 

But his cour-age 'gan fail, 
For no arts - could avail. 
Or, Then his cour-age 'gan fail - - him, 
For no arts - could avail - - him. 

2. Of three anapaests, or nine syllables; as, 

ye woods - spread your branch-es apace, 
To your deep-est recess-es I fly ; 

1 would hide - with the beasts - of the chase, 

I would van-ish from ev-ery eye. 



PROSODY. 179 

Sometimes a syllable is retrenched from the first foot ; as, 
Ye shep-herds so cheer - ful and gay, 
Whose flocks - never care-lessly roam. 

3. Of 'four anapaests, or twelve syllables ; as, • ;. 

'Tis the voice - of the slug-gard ; I hear - him complain, 
You have wak'd - me too soon, - I must slum - ber again. 

Sometimes an additional short syllable is found at the end ; as, 
On the warm - cheek of youth, - smiles and ro-ses, are blend-m^. 

The preceding are the different kinds of the Principal* feet, in their 
more simple forms ; but they are susceptible of numerous variations, 
by mixing them with one another, and with the Secondary feet. 

Figures op Speech. 
A figure of speech is a figure of a section, and consists of investing 
the section with a sense different from its common or literal meaning. 
The principal figures which beautify sections are the following : 

1. Antithesis. 9. Metaphor. 

2. Apostrophe. 10. Simile. 

3. Climax. 11. Metonymy. 

4. Erotesis. 12. Synecdoche 

5. Vision. 13. Irony. 

6. Hyperbole. 14. Allegory. 

7. Ecphonesis. 15. Themilon, and 

8. PROSOPOPEIA. 16. NETHEMILON.f 

* Iambus, trochee, and anapaest, may be denominated principal feet ; because 
pieces of poetry may be wholly, or chiefly formed of any of them. The others 
may be termed secondary feet ; because their chief use is to diversify the num- 
bers, and to improve the verse. 

f There are figures which affect the shapes of words. These are 

1. Aphceresis which rejects the first part of a word ; as, 'neath for beneath. 

2. Syncope which rejects one, or more letters from the middle of a word ; 
as, lingering, for lingering ; or 

3. Syncope rejects one, or more letters from the end of a word ; as, thro 1 for 
through. 

4. Prothesis which adds one, or more letters to the commencement of a 
word ; as, enchain for chain. 

5. Paragoge which adds one, or more letters to the termination of a word ; 
as, bounden for bound. 

6. Synceresis which contracts two syllables into one ; as, alienate for alienate. 

7. Diozresis which separates two vowels that stand together; as, aerial; this 
separation connects the vowels with different syllables. 

8. Tmesis which divides a compound word ; by throwing another word be- 
tween the two parts of the compound one ; as, how high soever. (The com- 
pound word whose parts are separated by high, is howsoever.) 

9. Ellipsis which affects the form not only of a word, but of a section, or a sen- 
tence, is the omission of some word, or some entire section ; as, a certain man 
planted a vineyard, (and , set a hedge) (about it.) Here the pronoun, 
he, is omitted before set. John purchased what , ) ( , , ) 
In wanted. Here there is an omission of the entire section, which was, and 



180 PROSODY. 

REMARKS. 

The word, rhetoric, is made from the Greek, rheo, to speak, and technicos, 
technically, hence means to speak technically ! That the application of this 
word to the doctrines of the investments with which certain sections are imbued, 
has produced a vast amount of embarrassment to the learner of the English 
Language, is obvious from the utter inapplicability of the term. 

Note. In Greek, the word, figure, is schema, in Latin it is vestitum, 
and means the apparel with which the human body is invested, or 
clothed. He that examines with care will see a close analogy between 
the apparel with which the body is clad, and the ornaments with 
which sections are invested. The vividness, force, strength, dignity, 
special brevity, and the embellishments which arise from imputing 
the import of one word to another, from speaking of one thing as the 
mere index to another, from taking a part for the whole, or the whole 
for a part, from inverting the meaning of words, from extravagant 
exaggerations, from introducing a series of things, or circumstances, 
which gradually rise, or fall in dignity on a climactic scale, from con- 
trasting contraries, from emphatically, and abruptly introducing some- 
thing which is not connected with the main thing, from converting 
mere things into persons, from adding metaphor to metaphor, from 
bringing events which are past, or future, into present time, from 
methodical stately arrangements of the words of a section, and from 
various other things, may be considered the graces of speech. These 
investments are to sections what turns, trills, and shakes are to music, 
The figures of speech are to sections what the chains, and bracelets 
are to their wearers, for as the bracelet adorns the wrist, so does the 
figure adorn the section which may be invested with it. 

The materials of which, and the manner in which some sections are 
formed, enable them to express their ideas with a high degree of 
ornament. But the materials of which, and the manner in which 
others are constructed, prevent them from expressing their ideas with 
any of these graces, or investments. Hence, sections are divided into 
Literal, and Figurative. 

I. A Literal section is one which is not invested with any of the 
figures of speech ; as, 

[" We can not find out the Lord fully."] 

this figure gives a new form to the sentence ; the omission of thing, however, 
after what, gives a new form to the section. 

10. Pleonasm which occurs where there are redundant words, or redundant 
sections ; as, John was in this room here, this here pen, [the sun shines] (on all 
men) (who will receive his rays) {from the heavens.) That from the heavens is a 
pleonastic section, must be obvious to all who will reflect, that this section is 
not used to limit the rays. That is, this section does not seem to be employed to 
distinguish these rays from others which the sun may send from another place. 

II. Enallage which is the use of one denomination of words for another; 
as, John came slow to me. Here slow is an adverb in the adjective form. 

12. Hyperbaton which is a transposition of words ; as, ill fares the man to 
threating ills a prey. 

The plain, literal arrangement of the words is as follows: the man fares ill, 
Who is a prey to threating ills. 



PROSODY. 181 

2. A Figurative section is one which contains a figure of speech; as, 
[" Can we find out the Lord fully ?"] 
[" Can we acquire God" (to perfection) ?] 

1. Antithetical "Investment op Sections. 
The antithetical investment of a section, is the contrast, or antithesis 
which is expressed by one, or by more of its words : 

1. [" The stork knoweth her appointed time;'] (but my people 
know not the judgments) (of the Lord.") 

2. [" He saw life~\ (in death,) ( , , exaltation) (in debase- 
ment^) ( , , glory) (in shame,) ( , ; a kingdom) (in bond- 
age,) (and , , light) (in darkness.") 

3. [" The foxes have holes;] (but the son (of man) hath not where 
to lay his head.") 

2. Apostrophical Investment of Sections. 
The apostrophical investment of a section, is the sudden transition 
from the main subject, to speak to a person, or a thing that may be 
present, or absent : 

1. (" 0,) (Israel,) thou hast destroyed thyself." Eos. 13, 9. 

Israel had long displeased the Lord — and he had long expostulated -with 
them through his prophet, Hosea, for their high provocations against him. 
At length, the Lord turns from them as his theme, as his subject, but to them 
as his audience : 

(" 0,) (Israel,) thou hast destroyed thyself, but in me is thy 
help." 

Before this, he had spoken of this people, but to Hosea. But a strong 
aversion which the Lord felt to their course, caused him to break off abruptly 
from speaking of them, and to turn to them to express the dislike which he 
felt to it, and the surprise which he felt at it. 

2. [Be wise now, therefore,] (0,) (ye) (kings,) (be instructed,) 
(ye) (judges) (of the earth.") Psalm ii. 9, 10. 

The speech from which David turns to the above instance, is this : 

" Thou shalt break them with a rod of iron," &c. 

David is here speaking to God, but of the kings, and judges of the earth. 
David had long denounced the judgments of God against the rulers of the 
earth ; but perceiving little, or no reform, he turns from speaking to God, and 
addresses the above words of admonition to the rulers themselves. 

" Thou shalt break them with a rod of iron; thou shalt dash them 
in pieces like a potter's vessel." 

"Be wise now, therefore, 0, ye kings; and be instructed, ye judges 
of the earth !" 

3. ["Hear,] (0, (heavens,) (and give ear) (0,) earth;) (for the 
Lord hath spoken,) (I have nourished,) (and brought up children ;) 
(and they have rebelled) (against me.") Isaiah 1, 2. 

Isaiah had long complained of Judah for her rebellion. He had long 
exhorted her to repentance, first with promises, then with threatenings. And, 



182 PROSODY. 

under the excitement of sore disappointment, and dislike, he turns abruptly 
from them, and addresses the heavens, and the earth. 

4. [Death is swallowed up] (in victory.) (0,) (Death!') [where 
is thy sting?] (0,) (Grave,) [where is thy victory?] 

Paul here abruptly breaks off from speaking of death, and turns to death, 
and the grave which he addresses in terms of taunt, and reproach : 

" 0, Death, where is thy sting? 0, Grave, where is thy victory 1" 

In other phrase — Death, thou shalt be put to deep shame when the saying 
shall have been brought to pass, "Death shall be swallowed up in victory" 
O, death, it will then be demonstrated that thy boasted sting which is sin, 
hath been extracted from' thee by the atonement of Christ. And 0, grave, it 
shall then appear that thy vaunted power to hold, in eternal dominion, the 
redeemed of the Lord, is the subject of a vain boast. 

3. Climactic Investment of Sections. 

The climactic investment of sections, is the exomation which 
springs from gradually ascending from the least to the greatest, or 
from gradually descending from the greatest to the least : 

1. ["Add (to your faith) virtue ;] (to your virtue) ( ; , know- 
ledge,) (to your knowledge) ( , , temperance,) (and (to your 
temperance) , , patience,) (and (to patience) , , godliness,) 
(and (to godliness) , , brotherly kindness,) (and (to brotherly 
kindness) , , charity.) 

2. [" The head (of every man) is Christ;] (and the head (of the 
woman) is the man ;) (and the head (of Christ) is God.") 

3. [" His arm gave blows;] (his blows gave wounds;) (and his 
wounds gave death.) 

4. (In the beginning) [was the word ;] (and the word was) (with 
God;) (and the word was God.") 

5. [" Hope cometh] (from experience ;) (experience , ) (from 
patience;) (and patience , ) (from tribulation.") 

6. [" Tribidation worketh patience;] (and patience , expe- 
rience;) (and experience , hope") 

4. Erotesic Investment of Sections. 

The erotesic investment of a section, is the power with which a 
section is invested to establish, or confirm the idea by an interroga- 
tive construction which seems to imply that the thing stated, is an 
axiom : 

1. ["Are not five sparrows sold] (for two farthings?") 

2. f" Can the blind see?"] 

3. [" Have I not seen Jesus Christ] ( , , ) (our Lord?") 

4. ["Doth God pervert judgment?"] 

5. "Vision Investment of Sections. 
The vision investment of a section, is the vivacity, or power with 
which a section is invested, to bring past } and future events into pre- 
sent time : 



PROSODY. , 183 

-*» 

1. [" And immediately the spirit driveth Mm] (into the wilder- 
ness.") 

2. [ Yes, (Gentlemen) (of the jury,) the monster (at the Bar) plunges 
this dagger] (into the heart) (of his own brother) (for no better rea- 
son) (than that) (of revenge.") 

Where a speaker wishes to make a deep impression, he often employs a 
section of the epanaleptic class. By the use of the present tense he brings 
back the whole scene, into the time of speaking. By this means those whom 
he addresses, are made to see, the deed to which he is directing their 
attention. 

6. Hyperbolical Investment op Sections. 
The hyperbolical investment of a section, is the power with which 
the section is invested from particular words, to greatly exaggerate, 
or to diminish the properties ascribed to the being, or things men- 
tioned : 

1. [" The flowers (in yonder meadow) are] (stars.") 

2. ["He is] {Lucifer.") 

3. ["She is] (an angel.") 

4. [" He owned a piece] (of ground) (which was not larger) (than 
a Lacedemonian letter") 

5. [" He was so gaunt] ( , , , (that) (the case of a flagelet) 
was a mansion) (for him.") 

6. [" Man is] (a mere worm") '■ 

[" Saul was swifter] (than an eagle ;) (and , , stronger) (than 
a Hon.") * 

7. Ecphonesic Investment of Sections. 

The ecphonesic investment of a section, is the power to express the 
exclamatory emotions of the speaker : 

1. (" 0,) (Lord,) [how excellent is thy name?"] 

2. (" 0,) (wretched man) (that I am) [who shall deliver me] (from 
the body) (of this death !") 

3. (" 0,) (Jerusalem,) (Jerusalem,) (which killest the prophets.") 

4. [" How is the golden city spoiled !"] 

5. (" 0,) (tyrant heaven,) (and (traitor earth,) how is this done ?) 
how is this suffered ? Hath this world a government ?" 

On seeing the innocent Philoclea beheaded, Pyrocles burst forth into these 
exclamations. 

Sectionized : 
(" 0,) (tyrant heaven,) [how is this done] (and how is this suffered?) 
(and how is this done,) (and how is this suffered,) (traitor earth ?) 
[Has this world a government ?"] 

8. Prosopopeia Investment of Sections. 
The prosopopeia investment of a section, is the special power with 
which a section is invested, to convert by representation a mere thing 
into a person : 



184 PROSODY. 

1. [" Behold] (this stone shall he a witness) (unto us ;) (for it hath 
heard all the words) (of the Lord) (which he hath spoken) (unto 
us.") 

The intelligence which is ascribed to the stone, is implied in witness, and 
heard. 

2. ["Let the floods clap their hands;"] (let the hills rejoice to- 
gether.") 

The figurative words are hands, clap, and rejoice. 

3. [" Wisdom crieth] (at the gates.") " crieth." 

4. [" And he cried] (against the altar) (in the words) (of the 
Lord,), (and , said,) (0,) (Altar,) (Altar,) (thus saith the Lord.") 

(against Altar, Altar.) 

9. Metaphoric Investment of Sections. 
The metaphor ic investment of a section, is the special dignity, per- 
spicuity, and brevity which a section possesses to illustrate the quality 
of the being, or thing in one word : 

1. [" Washington was] (the pillar) (of our country :") 

The attributes which Washington exhibited in relation to our country, are 
illustrated in the one word, pillar. The qualities of a pillar are substituted for 
those which Washington manifested in reference to our country in the revolu- 
tionary struggle. But instead of expressing these qualities in language 
unindued with any of the graces of speech, the writer indues his section with 
special vividness, and strength. 

Uninvested : Washington sustained our country. 

The uninvested language enables us to understand — but the indued makes us 
see our country placed on Washington to be preserved in the whirlwind of 
faction, and tempest of war. 

2. [" The Queen (of Sheba) saw the wisdom] (of Solomon.") 

The attribute of seeing is here put for the quality of proving, and under- 
standing. 

3. [" The neighing (of horses) is heard] (from Dan.") 

The quality of hearing is substituted for the attribute of foreseeing. The 
neighing of horses, is foreseen by the prophet. 

4. [" That man] (is a fox.") 

The craftiness of that man is illustrated by the cunning of the fox. The 
stratagem of the fox is substituted for the craftiness of that particular man. 

5. [" These soldiers were] (lions) (in combat.") 

6. [" A prudent man bridles his anger."] 

The act of controlling the horse with the bridle, is substituted for the act 
of restraining the anger of the man. 

6. [Opposition fires courage] (in all.) 

ySfhsit fire is to matter, opposition is to courage. 

10. Simile Investment of Sections. 
The simile investment of a section, is the power of impressiveness, 
and perspicuity with which a section, is invested, to represent that 



PROSODY. 185 

the qualities of one thing emulate those of other things which are 
known to have the same attributes in a remarkable degree : 

1. [" He stands like] ( , a tower."') 

2. ["Faith (in affliction) is like'] ( , light) (in darkness.) 

3. [" As the door turneth] (upon its hinges,) (so doth the slothful) 
(upon his bed.") 

This figure is called by the old school grammarians, a simile. But so laxly 
have writers, in general, treated this subject that it is hardly possible to decide 
whether the whole sentence is denominated a simile, or whether a mere part of 
it falls under this denomination. In a work, compiled by Goold Brown, how- 
ever, I find a precision of which others are destitute. He says, 

" A simile is a simple, and express comparison ; and is generally introduced 
by like, as, or so : as, 

"At first, like thunder's distant tone, 
The rattling din came rolling on," 

"Like thunder's distant tone," is marked as the simile portion of the sentence. 
But, as a simile is a comparison are not all the things which are compared 
simile things ? If there is any comparison in this example it is instituted 
between the " thunder's tone," and the rattling din. Why, then, is not the 
rattling din as much a simile portion of the sentence as the thunder's tone? 
When John and Joseph are compared one with the other, does not the simile 
character of the sentence which .makes the comparison, infuse itself into 
both ! ? 

" John is as old as Joseph." 

Is not this a simple, and an express, comparison ? If so this is a simile ! ! 
Which part of the comparison is a simile ! ? "Dentibus alba" is as much a 
simile as is " like thunder's distant tone .'" 

11. Metonymy Investment of Sections. 
The metonymy investment of a section, is the grace which springs 
from using one thing as the mere index to another : 

1. ["Mr. Adams addressed the chair] an hour.") 

2. [" The kettle boils."] 

3. [" They have Moses;] (and , , the prophets .") 

4. [" The house is buildivg."] 

5. [" The Lord loveth righteousness."] 

1. The chair is mentioned as a mere index to him who occupied it. And 
much brevity is derived from the use of the chair as an index, with which to 
point out the president of the meeting. 

1. He addressed the chair. 

2. He addressed the president of the meeting. 

2. The kettle bears an index relation to the liquid which it contains. Hence 
the kettle is mentioned as an index to the water which boils in it. 

3. Moses, and the prophets bear an index relation to their works. Hence, 
he, and they are introduced as indexes to these works. * 

4. " The house is building." 

They who reject this expression upon the ground that the house itself does 
not build, must also reject the following : 

" The kettle boils," "He addressed the chair an hour," "We have 
Moses, and the prophets." 



186 PROSODY. 

Does the kettle itself boil ? No. Have we Moses himself ? No. Have we 
the prophets themselves ? No, verily. 

The house advances under the act of building. This act however, is not 
done by the hotise, but by the builder. But, as the house advances toward a 
finish, so to speak, under the influence of this act, this act bears an index rela- 
tion to this advancement — hence, in speaking of the advancement of the house, 
this act is mentioned as a mere index, to this advancement. He that can wrest 
this, and its kindred expressions, from our language, may deride the erotesis, 
" Canst thou draxo out Leviathan with a hook ?" 

5. " The Lord loveth righteousness." 

Righteousness bears an index relation to good men — hence righteousness is 
used as the means of referring to righteous men. 

12. Synecdoche Investment or Sections. 
The synecdoche investment of a section, is the ease, embellishment, 
and brevity which spring from taking the whole for a mere part ; and 
the mere part for the whole : 

1. [" Whereby the world (that then was) ( , being overflowed) 
(with water,) perished."'] 2 Peter 6. 

The " world" is the synecdoche, the whole world, taken for the earth, a mere 
part of the world. 

2. [" Till thou return] (to the ground.") 

" Thou" includes the whole man, soul, and body. And, as the body only, is 
to return to the ground, " thou" is a synecdoche — a figure which takes the whole 
for a, part. 

3. [" These are the sons] (of Jacob) (which were born) (to him) 
(in Padanaram.") Gen. xxxv. 26. 

In verses 22, 23, 24, 25, there is an enumeration of the twelve sons of 
Jacob. Verse 26, declares that all of them were born in Padanaram. Yet, 
Benjamin was born on the way near Ephrath, which is declared in verse 16. 

4. [" These all died] (in faith.") 

These — that is, all whom the apostle had enumerated, died in faith. Among 
them, however, was Enoch who, as is declared in verse 5, did not clie at all! 

"By faith Enoch was translated that he should not see death." Verse 5. 

"All these died," the whole section is the synecdoche. If there is any one 
word in it, which can be considered the synecdoche, it is all. 

5. [" And Jephthah was buried] (in the cities') (of Gilead.") 

6. [" The thieves also (which were crucified) (with him,) upbraided 
him."] 

Both are mentioned for the one who actually did upbraid him. 

7. [" We deceived the people,] (and , seemed orators") 
Cicero here speaks of himself. 

When an editor sa^ss we for himself only, he employs a synecdoche. 

1. [" The horse is a noble animal."] 

2. ["Therefore we conclude that] (man is justified by faith.") 
One man is here taken for many, for all men. 

3. [" Then Abraham took Sarah] ( , , his wife,) (and , , the 
souls") (&c.) 

Souls — a mere part. The whole — men, and women. 



PROSODY. 187 

4. [" The Roman was victor] (in battle.") 

5. [" I am not worthy] ( , that) (thou shouldst come) (under 
my roof/') 

The roof which is a mere part, is here taken for the whole house. Thou 
shouldst come into my house. 

6. [" And it was told] (the house) (of David) (Saying,) (Syria is 
confederate) (with Ephraim") Isaiah vii. 2. 

Ephraim is put for the ten tribes of Israel. 

7. ["Because Syria, (Ephraim , , , , ) (and the son , 
, , , ) (of Remalia) [have taken evil counsel] (against thee.") 

Isaiah vii. 5. 

Ephraim is put for the ten tribes of Israel. 

8. [" But blessings shall be] (upon the head) (of him) (that selleth 
it.") 

9. [" A man shall eat good] (by the fruit) (of his mouth.") 
One man is put for all. 

13. Ironic Investment oe Sections. 
The ironic investment of a section, is the derision, the taunt, and 
contrariety, which spring from using words in direct opposition to 
their true meaning : 

1. [" Cry aloud;] -(for he is) (a God.") 

2. [" Nero was (a virtuous prince) indeed."] 

3. [" Pope Hildebrand was remarkable] (for his meekness") 
That is, he was remarkable for his want of this Christian grace. 

14. Allegorical Investment of Sentences. 
The allegorical investment of a sentence, is a series of metaphors 
on the same subject : 

1. ["Stop , the, current] (young man,) (the meadoxos have 
drunk , sufficiently.) 

The two sections, [Stop , the current] (the meadows have drunk suffi- 
ciently) constitute an allegory. 

An allegory is a sentence which is embellished with a series of figures on 
the same subject. These two sections come within the same sentence. Hence 
they form an allegory. These two metaphors are the component parts of an 
allegory. The allegorical sections are those metaphors which constitute an 
allegory : 

2. [" Rub , not the scar] (lest you open the wound again,) 
(that is healed,) (and cause it to bleed afresh.") 

These four metaphors form one allegory. 

15. Themilonic Investment op Sections. 
The themilonic investment of a section, is the actual existence of 
the property on which the figurative character of the section depends : 



188 PROSODY. 

1. [ " Tlie loater murmurs/''] 

2. [" The flowers (in yonder meadow) are] (stars") 

3. [" Wisdom crieth] (at the gates.") 
Thermion is Greek, and means foundation. 

16. Nethemilonic Investment op Sections. 

The nethemilonic investment of a section, is the want of the pro- 
perty on which the figurative character of the section actually 
depends : 

Ne, not — hence netkemilon signifies a want of a foundation for the figure 
which is used in the section. 

1. [" The water runs."] 

That which has no feet cannot, with strict propriety, be said to run. 

2. ["Let my right hand forget her cunning."] 

It can hardly be said of that which has no mind, that it forgets. 

3. [" The sword shall devour, , ] (and , shall be satiate?) 
(and , , be made drunk) (with their blood") Jeremiah xlvi. 
10. 

1. As a sword is not a living creature, and as it has no teeth, how can it 
devour ? 

2. As a sword has nothing answering to a stomach, it is far-fetched indeed 
to speak of this weapon as filled to satiety. 

3. He that is drunk, is stupefied by the action of spirits on the stomach, 
and brain. A sword has nothing analogous to these organs — hence the invest- 
ment of the third section, is too far-fetched to be sanctioned by the laws of 
prosody. 

4. Had blood anything analogous to the stupefying power of spirits, the 
investment of the fourth section, might be sanctioned. But, as blood has no 
such powers, the fourth section also is a nelhemilon. 

4. [" Enoch was translated] ( , that) (he should not see 
death.") Heb. xi. 5. 

" He should not see death," is a nelhemilon. 

The phrase, "see deaifi" is used for die: 

Enoch was translated that he should not die. 

In the above netkemilon, it is intimated that a dead body can see. But as a 
corpse has no power to enable it to see, Enoch would never have seen death, 
even had he remained on the earth till he had died like other men. 

5. [" This man has a beautiful voice/'] 

As a voice has nothing which comes to the mind through the medium of the 
eye, it cannot be denominated beautiful. 

6. [" They build a horse] by Pallas' art divine." 

Mechanics do not build horses — farmers raise them. The analogy between 
the raising of a horse, and the construction of a house, is too slight to justify 
the application of the word build, even to the act of forming the famous Trojan 
horse. 

7. [" The elbow (of his nose) is disproportionate."] 

Though the crook in some noses, is considerable ; yet it is rarely enough 
like the elbow to justify the figure of the section. 



PROSODY. 189 

8. ["And I will cut down your images] (and , , cast your 
carcasses) (upon the carcasses) (of your idols/') 

As the,carcasses here mentioned, are mere pieces of images, the figure of the 
section, is a nethemilon. That is, it is a figure "which has no foundation in 
reality. 

9. [" For the Lord hath heard the voice] (of my weeping.") 

As nothing which has not the organs of articulation, can have a voice, it is 
difficult td see on what principle in Prosody this figure can be sustained. The 
Lord hath heard my weeping, interdicts this nethemilon, and improves the 
language. It is much better to employ literal language than to use that which 
is figurative, when the thing mentioned in the section, has not the figurative 
property on which the figurative character of the section depends. 

Specimen of incorporating the figures of speech with the construing 

of Sections. 

1. ["The murmuring of the water is] (music") 

1. [" The murmuring is,"] 

A figurative section of the trunk order, metaphoric investment, sentensie 
affirmative diction, plenary notation, broken state. 

2. (" of the water/') 
A literal section of the branch order, insentensic diction, plenary notation, 
unbroken st&tejuxta position, first rank uni adaption, making sense with its own 
part of the super section. Sense Reading — " the murmuring," the first part of 
super; " of the water" the sub — is, the second part of the super. 

3. ("mwsic") 
A figurative section of the branch order, metaphoric investment, plenary nota- 
tion, unbroken state, j'uxta position, first rank, uni adaption, making sense with 
its super section. Sense Reading — the murmuring is, the super section, music, 
the sub. 

2. [" He learned his arguments] (from Aristotle ;) (but , , his 
eloquence) (from Tully.")- 

1. [" He learned his arguments,"] 
A literal section of the trunk order, sentensie affirmative diction, plenary nota- 
tion, unbroken state. 

2. ("from Aristotle,) 
A figurative section of the branch order, metonymy investment, insentensic dic- 
tion, plenary notation, unbroken state, j'uxta position, first rank, uni adaption, 
[making sense with its super section. Sense Reading — He learned his argu- 
ments, the super section, — from Aristotle, the sub.* 

3. ("but , , his eloquence,") 
A literal section of the branch order, sentensie affirmative diction, implenary 
Inotation, disjuxta position, first rank, uni adaption, — making sense with its 
\super section. Sense Reading — He learned his arguments, the super section, 
|but he learned his eloquence, the sub. 

4. ("from Tully.") 
A figurative section of the branch order, metonymy investment, insentensic dic- 
tion, plenary notation, unbroken state juxta ^position, second rank uni adaption, 
laking sense with its super section. Sense Reading — (but he learned his 
eloquence,) the super section, from Tully, the sufb. 



190 PROSODY. 

3. ["Canst thou draw out Leviathan] (with a hook.") 

1. (" Canst thou draw out Leviathan,"} 

A$gurative section of the trunk order, erotesic investment, sentensic affirm- 
ative diction, plenary notation, unbroken state. 

2. ("with a hook.") 
A literal section of the branch order, insentensic diction, plenary notation, 
unbroken state, juxta position, first rank, uni adaption, making sense with its 
super section. Sense Reading — Canst thou draw out Leviathan, the super sec- 
tion, with a hook, the sub. 

4. [" It is not] (my sword) (which can help me.'") 

1. I'tltumtr] 

A literal section of the trunk order, sentensic affirmative diction, plenary nota- 
tion, unbroken state. 

2. u my sword") 

A figurative section of the branch order, synecdoche investment, insentensic 
diction, plenary notation, unbroken state, juxta position, first rank, uni adaption, 
making sense with its super section. Sense Reading — It is not, the super sec- 
tion, my sioord, the sub. 

3. ( u which can help me.") 
A literal section of the branch order, sentensic affirmative diction, plenary 
notation, unbroken state, juxta position, second rank, uni adaption, making 
sense with its super section. Sense Reading — My sword, the super section, 
which can help me, the sub. 

Give the Construing of the following sections according to the pre- 
ceding specimen. 

1. [What , is more^ odious~\ 

2. (than labour , ) ; 

), 
), 
), 



3. 


(to 


the idle , ), 




4. 


( 


) > i i 


> 


5. 


( 


, fasting , 


), 


6. 


(to 


the glutton,) 




7. 


( 


> f > > 


i 


8. 


( 


, want j 


), 


9. 


(to 


the covetous , 


), 


10. 


( 


> y f ) 


9 


11. 


( 


, shame , 


), 


12. 


(to 


the proud , ) 


7 


13. 


(and , , , 


f 


14. 


(to 


the wicked , 


), 


15. 


( 


, good laws 


? 



), 



•) 



Remarks. — Before referring the pupil to Exercises in other books, 
I deem it a duty to say that nothing but a thorough drilling in con- 
struing, can give that knowledge of the English Language, which is 
absolutely necessary to enable one to use it with ease, and propriety \ 



PROSODY. 



191 



Exercises. — 1. Take the various Exercises in book I. * 

2. Take the following : 

1 Kings xvii. 1. 1 Samuel xvii. 6, 7. Gen. vii. 7. Isa. iv. 1. 
Matt. x. 30, 24, 20. Acts xxiv. 26. Matt. xxvi. 15. 1 Kings xii. 
10. Isa. ii. 9. Luke vii. 44. Matt. xxi. 3. John xi. 3, 12, 28. 
Matt. viii. 20, and ix. 6. Gren. xlviii. 16. Exodus iii. 2. Isa. lxiii. 
9. Glen. xxxi. 2. Dan. xi. 22. Gren. iii. 15. Hebrews xxii. 24. 
1 Kings x. 4. Hagg. i. 9. Jer. viii. 15. Ecclesiastes i. 8. Hab. 
ii. 11. Lam. i. 4. Matt. iii. 11. Ps. lxxx. 8. . 



192 RECOMMENDATIONS. 

31st March, 1854. 



My Dear Sir, 

It is more than forty years since I opened any book on Grammar, 
and I therefore feel myself very incompetent to form an opinion on the 
comparative merit of the work you were kind enough to leave on my 
office-table. Of its substantive merit, however, I am able to speak 
with great confidence, and am inclined to speak with great warmth. 
I had not supposed the subject capable of being made attractive and 
impressive; and was much surprised to find that your volume is so 
characterized by direct, lucid, and forcible reasoning, by purity and 
simplicity of language, and by manly though modest sincerity of 
self-conviction, as to rivet my attention and satisfy my judgmeut 
from the beginning to the end. You see-m to me to have accom- 
plished, by great labour of mind and singleness of aim, an improve- 
ment in the art of explaining and teaching the mechanism of our 
language, which I think deserves all the rewards consequent upon 
public adoption and patronage. Very truly and respectfully, 

Your friend and servant, 
G. M. Dallas. 

James Brown, Esq. 

April 6, 1854. 
Dear Sir, 

I profess to be something of a grammarian, and therefore I felt 
anxious to examine your " Class Book of Criticism upon the Old 
Theory of English Grammar/' I have examined it carefully, and 
to my entire satisfaction, and I consider it the best work of the 
kind that has ever come under my notice. I have handed it over to 
my son,_who had been instructed upon the old system, and I am con- 
vinced that he gained more knowledge from its perusal, as to the 
nature and structure of language, than months of previous instruc- 
tion had afforded. I sincerely hope that the Board of Controllers of 
the First School District will sanction the use of this work as a Head- 
ing Book, in the Public Schools. Very truly, 

David Paul Brown. • 

James Brown, Esq. 

April 6, 1854. 
James Brown's Class Book of Criticism, written with great care 
and accuracy, is_well calculated for a reading book in the higher 
classes of our Public Schools, both on account of its matter and 
correct diction. P. A. Cregar, 

Principal S. E. G. School. 
I fully concur in the above opinion of Mr. Cregar. 

John Joyce, 
Principal of Weccacoe Boys' Gram. School. 
James C. Fisher, M. D., 

Principal of S. W. G. School. 



RECOMMENDATIONS OF BOOK SECOND. 193 
Philadelphia, January, 18 ">4. 

I have read the Second Book of Mr. Brown's Rational 
System of English Grammar ; and I am glad to find that the 
author has built on better principles than those on which the old 
theory is formed. Several months ago, I read the First Book 
of the Rational System of English Grammar ; and I was much 
pleased with it. I found that it contains none of the errors wh'tth 
pervade the common English Grammars. But, as I ascribed its 
freedom from error to the fact that the First Book is not a sub- 
stitute for the Grammars now in use, I commenced my examination 
of the Second Book which is designed as a substitute for the old 
theory of English Grammar, with great fear that the work would 
turn out to be a mere re-publication of the old Grammars. 1 find, 
however, that Mr. Brown has substituted Rational doctrines for 
the absurdities which have always been taught as the principles 
of our language. Instead of saying, as do the old Books of Eng- 
lish Grammar, English Grammar is the art of speaking, and writ- 
ing the English Language with propriety, Mr. Brown says, that 
English philology is the science of the English language, and the 
art of using it with propriety in all respects. He says, too, that 
English philology is divided into two parts, viz : English Signifi- 
cation, and English Grammar. 

English Signification, says he, the first part of English phil- 
ology, is the science of giving words a signification, and the art of 
using them with significant propriety. 

English Grammar, the second part of English philology, is the 
science of the construction of the English language, and the art 
of using it with constructive propriety. 

But what says the old theory ? English Grammar is the science 
of the English Language. 

While the old theory makes English Grammar the whole science 
of the English Language, the Rational System makes English 
Grammar the mere constructive principles of the English Lan- 
guage. 

That English Grammar does not embrace the whole science of 
the English Language, is too clear to require one remark. Eng- 
lish Grammar embraces clearly every constructive principle of the 
English Language. 

I consider the Second Book of the Rational System, a sound produc- 
tion, and I most heartily hope that the work will be put into the hands 
of all school children at once. I consider James Brown the best English 
Grammarian in the world ; in the formation of his Rational System of 
English Grammar, he has done a good deed for his country ; and I verily 
believe that it is the duty of us all to endeavour to promote its introduc- 
tion as a partial compensation for the bravery with which this soldier in 
the war of innovation, has long, and triumphantly fought our battle. 

P. A. BROWNE. 



194 RECOMMENDATIONS OF BOOK SECOND. 

I have examined the second Book of James Brown's rational 
system of English Grammar, and entertain the same opinion of it, 
that I do of the first. 

Those who acquire a knowledge of the popular theory, meet with 
many difficulties, when they endeavor to explain the construction of 
the most common sentences. These difficulties are felt, by most 
scholars, if not by all. The conclusion seems to be inevitable that 
this theory is not merely imperfect but radically wrong. If it did 
what it professes to do, these difficulties, would not arise. There 
would be no necessity for improved Grammars, to explain, and teach 
what Murray supposed he had clearly explained and taught. Yet 
volume has been added to volume, and explanation to explanation, 
without making one scholar a better grammarian than he would 
have been from the study of Murray alone. Indeed, those who 
have derived their grammatical knowledge from Murray, are 
generally better informed on the subject than the students of his 
successors. 

The difficulties referred to are sometimes, charged to the imper- 
fection of the language ; bul it seems to me, that in these cases, the 
imperfection belongs to the understanding that makes the charge. 
The authors who have followed Murray attribute them, not to the 
falsity of the old theory, but. to the defective Grammars, written to 
teach it; and they have composed new ones, in a vain effort to 
build up an efficient system upon a foundation of error. The result is 
that the subject is as much embarrassed as ever. But, in the con- 
fidence of vanity, some of these authors have presumed, not only 
that they could improve the radically erroneous Grammars of the 
language, but the language itself. They have introduced forms of 
speech, which distort the frame, and weaken the energy of our noble 
English. In terms which violate its simplicity, ignorance and 
affectation tell us, that a house is being built when there is no truth 
in the assertion, when the house, instead of being built, is only 
building. A proper knowledge of the language, and of its native 
modes of expression, would have saved it from the deformity of this 
and other modern innovations. 

Errors long continued become inveterate, and encourage the 
increase of abuses. The earliest moment for correcting them is the 
best. To procrastinate is to decide that a future, and not the present 
generation, shall be benefitted by the truth. We have called fire, 
tongs, and shovels, persons long enough. We have long enough 
been taught that transitive verbs, and prepositions, govern nouns 
in the objective case ; as Joshua stopped the sun, — that of two or 
more things equally related, but one is the object of the relation ; as 
John stands by Robert, — that the actor is in the Nominative case, 
and that the object of the action, is in the objective case, which are 
strikingly illustrated in the nominative noun, house, and in the 
objective noun, Peter, in the sentence — the house was built by Peter. 
The theory of Mr. Brown's Grammar is calculated, to correct the 
errors which have hitherto composed an inexplicable system — it is 
founded on the true constructive principles of our language — its 
adoption will lead to a better knowledge of those principles, and 
tend to prevent the corruptions to which the language is subjected- 

THOS. S. SMITH. 



RECOMMENDATIONS OF BOOK SECOND. 195 

Although I have not examined the second Book of Mr. Brown's 
Rational system of English Grammar as thoroughly as 1 have the 
First, I am satisfied that Mr. Smith s opinion of .t is just, and am 
perfectly willing to say th it I concur in opinion with him, respect, 
ing the work. And in imitation of his course, I would ask whether 
we have not styled words which represent cats, d>gs, and even inan- 
imate objects, personal pronouns long enough — whether we have not 
sufficiently long denom'nated the speech, the diction itself, a mere 
made of the verb — whether we have not too long paid for teaching 
our children that there are three cases when in truth and simplicity 
there is not even one. 

I would ask also whether the hens possess the egSfs, the boys pos- 
sess the hats, the baker, the bread, and whether the brewer actually 
posseses the yeast mentioned in the sentences — John carried Ste- 
phen's hens' eggs to market — John has boys' hats for sale, brewer's 
yeast is used in baker's bread !! 

I would ask likewise whether we have not already used the word 
case, in English long enough, whether we have not too long pars- 
ed the thing fi >r the name of the thing — whether we have not too 
long called words which have no relation to verbs, adverbs — and 
whether we are still to be compelled by the use of the old theory to 
have our children taught that the verb which represents a perfectly 
finished event, is of the Imperfect tense ? I would ask too whether 
there is any propriety in continuing to learn that a verb is a word 
which signifies being, action or suffering; as, John ought to return, 
He resembles her, The timber wants strength and solidity, He can 
go, John has land in Ohio — whether there is any propriety in teach- 
ing that a noun is the name of any person, place or thing while the 
preposition, behind, is as much the name of a place as is any other word 
in the Language and while the adjective, red, is as much the name 
of something as is any other word, in short, whether there is a propri- 
ety in learning a definition of a noun which makes all words nouns. 

May I not venture to suggest that the enlightened gentlemen ap- 
pointed directors of our schools should no longer pay instructors for 
teaching our children a definition of the third person, which makes 
no difference between the third person, and a subject, finally may 
I not hope that they will introduce a Rational system of English 
Grammar into our Public schools which under their control have 
become the ornament, and attraction of Pennsylvania. 

GEORGE W. PIDDLE 

Philadelphia, January 6, 1854. 
I have not only read the second Book of Mr. Brown's Rational 
system of English Grammar, but 1 have taught from/it ; and I feel 
confident that he substitutes simplicity for complexity, truth for error, 
and consistency for absurdity wherever he innovates upon the old 
theory. 

NICHOLAS H. MAGUIRE. 

Philadelphia, January 7, 1854. 
We are satisfied, that the Second Book, of Mr. Brown's Rational 
System of English Grammar, removes all the obscurities,. absurdities 
and contradictions which pervade the common theory. 

LOUISA BEDFORD. 
A* CLAUDINE ROY. 



CONTENTS 



Page 
Nottce --------- 2 

DlRKCTTONS -------- 3 

General view of the subject ----- - 6 

Division of English Grammar ----- 7 

English Orthography ------ 7 

English Etymology _-__-_ 7 

English Syntax ------- 7 

English Prosody ------- 7 

Quest ions -------- 8 

Denominations of Words ----- 9 

Noun Denomination _----- 9 

Nomi-iative Power ------ 9 

Pronoun Denomination ------ 10 

The Verb Denomination - - - - v - - II 

Preposition Denomination ------ H 

Conjunction Denomination ----- 11 

Adjective Denomination ------ 11 

Su'badjective Denomination - - - - - 12 

Adverb Denomination -------12 

Subudverb Denomination ------ 12 

Interjection Denomination ------ 12 

Indication of Nouns, Pronouns, and Trunk word Combinations 12 
Auditive Indication -_----_ 13 

Self subject Indication ---.-/_ 13 

Formative indication ------.12 

Subjec'ive Indication __-__- 13 

Remarks on the Relation which things bear to the discourse 

itself - - 14, 15, 16 

Application of Nouns, and Pronouns - - - 17, 18 

Namzrdiction of Nouns and Pronouns - - 18, 19 

Genediction -------- 19 

Proioun Reading - * - - - - - - 21 

Forms of Pronouns ------- 23 

Exercises o» the Properties of Nouns, and Pronouns - 25 

(i) 



11 CONTENTS. 

Page 
Classes of Pronouns ------ 26 

Remarks on the two Classes of Pronouns 26 

Noun Denomination -_---_ 28 

Proving ---------28 

Proving Rules ------_ 28 

Exercises in Proving Incorporated words - - - 31 

Exercises in Proving Unincorporated words - - 31 

Important Remarks - ■ - - - - _ . 33 

Exercises in Proving Cases which fall under Rule III. 33 

Important Remarks -------34 

Rules for distinguishing between the Nominative, and the 

Objective - 

Exercises in Proving Nouns, and Pronouns 
Noun Denomination - 



35 
36 
37 
37 
45 
45 
45 
46 
46 
47 
47 



Verb Denomination - 

Division of the Verb Denomination 

Inceptive Verb 

Final Verb -_--.. 

Medial Verb -._--- 

Solo Verb -----_. 

No?ninative ~V erb -.'_.--- 

Objective Verb - - - - - - . 47 

Important Remarks - 47 

Specimen of Testing .----.-48 

Exercises in Testing whether words are Verbs - - 49 

Tense of Verbs ----___ 49 

Division of Time - 51 

Tense - - _ - - - - 51 

A Partial Description of the Tenseope - 52 
Present tense ------- -55 

Middle Present Tense 56 

Passed Tense --.----- 57 

Prior Passed Tense - 58 

Future Tense - - - - - - - - 5^ 

Prior Future Tense _ 59 

Tense Forms ------__ 60 

Division of the Passed Tense Forms - 61 

Tenseless forms of Verbs 61 

How the Tenseless forms of Verbs, are Constructed - 62 

Division of the Tenseless forms of Verbs 62 

Defective Verbs ----_-_ Q2 

Defective Verbs which have the Tenseless Be form - - 63 

Tenseless Have and Be form ----- 64 



CONTENTS. iii 

Page 
Verbs which possess not only the Have and Be form, but the 

Regular Passed Tense form ■ 65, 66 

Verbs that have the Irregular Passed Tense form, which they 

substitute for a Tenseless Have and Be form - 66 

Verbs that have both the Regular, and the Irregular Passed 

Tense form, but no Tenseless Have and Be form - 67 
Verbs that have the Irregular Passed Tense form, and the 
Tenseless Have and Be form, but which often put their 
Primitive State for their Tenseless Have and Be form 67 
Verbs which have the Irregular Passed Tense form and Tense- 
less Have and Be form, but which not unfrequently 
substitute their Passed Tense form for their Tenseless 
Have and Be form ------ 67 

Verbs that have the Irregular Passed Tense form, and the 
Tenseless Be and Have form, which they never ex- 
change for any other form - 68 
Inflection of Verbs -------69 

Preposition Denomination - 71 

Conjunction Denomination ------ 72 

Adjective Denomination ------ 73 

Sub:tdjective Denomination ------ 73 

Adverb Denomination ______ 73 

Subadverb Denomination - - - - - - 73 

Interjection Denomination ----- 74 

Sub-division of Adjectives ------ 74 

Adjectives made from pronouns . - 75 

Indication of Adjectives ------ 76 

Comparison of Adjectives _____ 77 

Adjectives rarely Compared ----- 78 

Rules respecting the Formation of the Comparison of Adjectives 78 
Very Important, Remarks on the relative Bearing of Adjectives 78 
Words to be Compared by the Pupil ... 79 

Proving Rules ---_.-- 81 

Etymology _-----_. 84 

Class Etymology - - - 84 

Sense Etymology ----- - - 87 

Important Facts - - - - -'- - - 89 

Construction of an insentensic Branch Section - 90 

Sentensic Branch Section ------ 90 

Section of the Trunk order - - - - - - 91 

Insentensic Section, Fact I. - - - - - - 92 

Sentensic Section .._-_-- 93 

Parsing ---------96 

Prepared Exerctsf.s in Parsing - 101 

Parsing Exercises ------- 106 



116 
117 



IV CONTENTS. 



Index Nouns - - - - - - - ■ 112 

Index Pronouns - - - - - - - 113 

Index Verbs, whole section - - - 116 
Inceptive position ------- 

Medial position - - - 

Final position - - - - - - - J 17 

Solo position - - - - - - - - 117 

Half Section - - - - - - - 119 

Solo position, Inceptive position - - --- - 119 

Medial position, (half section) - 120 

Final position {half section) - - - - - 120 ■ 

Index Adjectives - - - - - - .120 

Index Subadjectives - - - - - - - 121 

Index ./Jdverbs - - - - - - - 121 

Index Subadverbs - - - - - - - 122 

Index Preposition __--.-- 122 

Index Conjunction _____-- 122 

Lettered Exercises in Parsing - 123 

The same Exercises to be Lettered by the Pupil - - 129 

Part III. 

English Syntax - - - - - - - 135 

Rule I. -------- 135 

Specimen of Correcting Bad English by Rule I. - - 135 

Rule II. -------- 136 

Rule 1IL -------- 137 

Rule XIV. 143 

Rules respecting the formation of nouns into branch 

words - 144,145,171 

Rule XIX. If the Adverb which has no sub - - 146 

Before, and Previous - - - - - - 148 

Rule XX. Every Subadjrctive - 148 

Rule XXI. The Nominative Pronoun - - - 149 
Rule XXII. The Objective Verbs - - - - ■ , 149 

Abridged Nominative Verbs - - - - - ■ 149 

Rule XXIII. Prepositions require - - - - 150 

Rule XXIV. Certain Nouns, Verbs, - - - 151 

Observations on Prepositions - - - - 153 

Rute XXVI. If the Pronoun - 157 

Rules relating to Comparison - - - - 159 

Rule XXXII. When as many as three things - 160 

Rule XXXIII. Pronouns of the subjective indication - 160 

Rule XXXIV. Indefeciive pronouns - - - 161 

Note II. The formative functionary - 161 



CONTENTS. V 

Page 

Note III. Where there are two principals - - - 161 

Rule XXXV. Indefective pronouns - - - 162 

Remark under Rule XXXV. 162 

Remarks ou which, icho, and that - 162 

Remarks on invite, put, split, took, walk, key, &c. - - 162 

Rules and Remarks on in, and at - 163 

Whether, neither, although, unless, as, so, not, only, and both 163 

Rules respecting Tense 164 to 169 

Remarks on shall, and will 169 

Adjectives made from Pronouns 170 

English Prosody 1 74 

Abbreviations - 174 

Emphasis I75 

Pronunciation -----_._ 17(3 

Accent, Quantity 176 

Pause, Tone 176 

Versification, Division of Poetry - - - * 176 

Modern Versification 176 

Sentential Pause, Poetic Pause 176 

Poetic Feet _ _ 177 

Scanning ---_._.. I77 

Iambic Measure 177 

Double Ending 177 

Twelve Syllables, or Six Feet 178 

Trochaic Measure 178 

Anapaestic Measure 178 

Three Anapaests, or Nine Syllables - 178 

Figures of Speech 179 

Literal Section - 180 

Figurative Section 181 

Antithesis 181 

Apostrophe 181 

Climax - ■ 182 

Erotesis 182 

Vision --.-_---- 182 

Hyperbole - - - - 183 

Ecphonesis 183 

Metaphor, Simile 184 

Metonymy 185 

Synecdoche 186 

Irony 186 

Allegory, Themilon 187 

Nethemilon 188 

Specimen of incorporating the Figures of Speech, with the 

Construing of Sections 189 

Exercises in Construing 190 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



j 

: Thi 

TBI 




BOOKS PUBIL 
JAMES BR 

^meHeowTs series of new school books. 

l,» rt hv which a child can be taught the names, and 

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sounds of the letter of th< P , ^ work conll)ri s. 

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The fTrst Book or the R*T,o N aL Ststkm of Ekcush GHAMMaa, 2, ett. 

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. lhe process of anting the English language 
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w ».U«U*I.I»pH«ifl-««' *»■"*»» "■«""»-•• • . 

The Th.rd Book of the R»t.o»*l System of E»«».iG.ai.KAK, dc- 
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Z, the *«<»«, and use of the ,****-* may be read_by hnn 
either in, or out of school, _ 

A Cass Book of Cs.t.csms on the Common Theory of Lngbsh Gram. 

A C "::,L on the writings of its Compilers »»**£ £ « 

B.owk's EEEOEStsofthe true way of analysing words, and cousins. 

said to be of difficult resolution, ^ ^ 

Brow's System of Parsing Forms. ' 

Philadelphia, August, l«4y. 



